Thursday, October 31, 2019
Critical thinking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4
Critical thinking - Essay Example Similarly, developing critical thinking requires strategies towards an understanding of and integration with environmental factors. I concur with the article’s position on significance of critical thinking in exploiting personal potentials, existence of different stages of critical thinking potential, and strategies to developing critical thinking capacity. Critical thinking is an instrument to exploitation of potential as it offers rationale for understanding personal abilities and identification of the appropriate need for such potentials. Once a potential and its need are matched, there develops motivation for manifesting abilities, including critical thinking. Critical thinking is also a process that requires ability to engage cognitively. Developing such abilities must therefore be gradual to pass through stages, as the article suggests. Similarly, being a process, developing critical thinking ability is aided by strategies such as being conscious of the environment, being flexible in mind, being analytical and connecting with the environment. These strategic factors facilitate awareness towards crit ical thinking for informed decisions (Collison, p.
Tuesday, October 29, 2019
Schoolyard Bullying Essay Example for Free
Schoolyard Bullying Essay A feature article dad sues school over bully attacks published on the 14th of February 2010. which is an article on a young boy who has been repeatedly attacked by children at his primary school and nothing has been done about it, there is also a editorial Bullied teenager receives $290,000 published on the 1 lth of march 2010. this is an editorial about a young girl who has been repeatedly bullied over the years and won her case with the court. l three articles have the same contention, they want the laws to be implemented and making parents aware that bullying can become out of hand if it is not resolved. beyond the schoolyard, into the home. this case study was written by Dina Halkic, the mother of the child who committed suicide because of cyber bullying. a 17 year old teenager committed suicide by Jumping off the west gate bridge after being repeatedly bullied at school and at home over the internet and text messages. he mother of the Allem blames herself for his death as she didnt realise the dangers of yber bullying. he was in his room, in our house with us, and he was safe, or so we thought this quote shows us the regret in her voice and makes us feel sympathy for her and her husband. she follows on by saying how could someone hurt him? Just like his mobile, why didnt we check it? the reader becomes involved in her story by giving us rhetorical questions that we start to question ourselves and our family values. Dina has written a case study of her ordeal day when she found out her son nly son has committed suicide that is confronting for parents, this makes the readers aware of the potential harm that lies in cyber space. she is urging for children and teens to use their computers in the open, where parents can see. the family dont want other children to go through what their son did, this is an informative piece that is confrountating. the parents are also trying to implement the laws for cyber bullying, there has been no case in australia to date where an individual has ben put to trial for cyber bullying. his case will play a role in toughing the laws against cyber bullying. this article is disturbing and sympathetic towards Allem and his parents this appeals to family safety. the newspaper has set out the article with the photos and the text at equal value, they have been placed in a certain way for the readers eyes to move through the photos going through the victim, who seems confiden t before his death. The victims parents, looking confused and sad, and then the victims friends crying, this shows the impact his death has done to the people around him who love him.
Saturday, October 26, 2019
Liver Function Tests Literature Review and Practice
Liver Function Tests Literature Review and Practice Introduction The liver is the largest internal organ in the body. In adult the liver weighs approximately 1-2.5 kilograms. It is â€Å"wedge-shaped†, soft and reddish-brown in colour. It is situated underneath the diaphragm. The liver is divided into right and left lobes by the middle hepatic vein. The right lobe is bigger and consists of caudate and quadrate lobes. The blood is supplied to the liver constitute 25% of the resting cardiac output and through two major blood vessels: hepatic artery and portal vein. Blood leaves the liver via the hepatic vein, which drains directly into the inferior vena cava. Bile is formed in the liver and it is collected in the bile capillaries which drain into the right and left hepatic ducts. The liver is organised in lobules within which blood flows past hepatic cells via sinusoids from branches of the portal vein (bringing absorbed materials from gastrointestinal tract) to the central vein of each lobule. Hepatic artery blood (providing oxygen needed for many of the metabolic processes carried out by the liver) also enters the sinusoids. The central veins coalesce to form the hepatic veins which drain into the inferior vena cava. Each liver cell is also apposed to several bile canaliculi. The canaliculi coalesce to form the right and left hepatic ducts, which join outside the liver to form the common hepatic duct. The cystic duct drains the gallbladder. The hepatic duct unites with the cystic duct to form the common bile duct. The common bile duct enters the duodenum at the papilla. Ganong, (1995) Hepatocytes or parenchymal (liver cells) which further classified on the basis of their site in the lobule comprise about 60% kupffer cells lining the hepatic sinusoids comprise 30% of the liver cells and the remaining 10% of cells consist of vascular and supporting tissue and bile ducts. The significant important of the liver came from the ability of this organ to perform a wide variety of functions which contribute in the body homeostasis, in particular regulation of blood sugar. When there is an excess sugar, the pancreatic cells secret the hormone insulin that converts excess sugar into glycogen (storage form of glucose). Glycogen provide rapid accessible source of energy for the body when blood glucose decrease. Also gluconeogenesis (formation of new glucose) from amino acids such as alanine and ascorbic acid take place in liver. The coagulation factors which are required for blood clotting, albumin and various lipoproteins which are required for transport of lipid in blood stream are synthesized in the liver. The only exception of protein synthesis is the synthesis of immunoglobulin. Cholesterol which serves as precursor of steroid hormones is mostly synthesized in by the liver. Also liver has the ability to excrete and detoxify e.g. ammonia formed from the brea kdown of amino acids or microbial action in the gastrointestinal tract converted to urea. Steroid hormones which are inactivated by conjugation with glucuronate and sulphate excreted into urine as water soluble forms. A wide range of medications (drugs) inactivated by endoplasmic reticulum enzymes and some are excreted in the bile. Kupffer cells in the hepatic sinusoid extract toxins absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. Other important excretory function is the excretion of bile acid formed from cholesterol in the liver to gall bladder where it stored until required for lipid digestion in the small intestine. The ability of liver to carry out its excretory function of the metabolism end products depends on, healthy functioning hepatocytes, adequate blood flow through the liver and patent biliary duct. The other important function of liver is Storage of vitamins such as vitamin A, D and vitamin B12. In addition, metabolism and excretion of bilirubin is one of the major functions of the liver. Bilirubin is an ecteric waste product pigment formed from the breakdown of haemoglobin (Hb) in the red blood cells in the lymph reticular system at the end of their life span which is approximately 120 days. Normally an adult produces about 450 umol/L daily. Gaw et al, (1999). Hb contains four haem group, an iron atom and prophyrin ring attached to each haem group. When Hb molecules metabolize, the iron atoms are removed and reused again in the processing of a new Hb molecule. The prophyrin ring breaks to form a open tetrapyrole derivative biliverdin chain which is further reduced to form unconjugated bilirubin (lipid soluble).Whitby, (1988). The lipid-soluble bilirubin can cross cell membrane include brain barrier and cause brain cell damage. Therefore it has to be transported by a special carrier called albumin in the plasma in order to be converted to water-soluble so that can be excreted into bile. The binding of albumin accomplished by being not enter cells readily and also not filtered through glumerulus unless there is glomerular proteinuria. When the albumin-bilirubin complex reach the liver, it dissociates by the receptors on the plasma at the same time. Inside hepatocytes, bilirubin molecules join to relatively non-specific anion binding proteins called ligandin (Y protein), is soluble transport protein in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Calbreath, (1992). The glucuronic acid molecules attach to unconjugated bilirubin molecules to form bilirubin glucuronides in a reaction mediated by uridine diphosphate (UDP). Bilirubin glucuronides complex is water-soluble conjugated bilirubin which then excreted into small i ntestine. The conjugation process depends on the active secretion of bile acids and therefore serum bile acids concentration are more sensitive index of hepatic transport function than the total bilirubin. Small amount undergoes reabsorption in the small intestine and the rest is degraded by bacterial action mainly in the colon where it is de-conjugated to form urobilinogen. Portions of urobilinogen re-enter the hepatic circulation and excreted by the liver into bile. Small fraction filtered by kidney into urine, but the majority is excreted in faeces providing its orange-yellow characteristic. If the bilirary tract becomes blocked, serum bilirubin concentration will rise as uncojugated bilirubin not excreted and the patient becomes jaundice. Jaundice is a yellow discoloration of the skin or the sclera of the eye. The yellowish coloration is caused by an excess amount of bilirubin in the plasma which is not detectable until the concentration is greater than 40 umol/L. gaw, et al (1999). The normal concentration is up to 20 umol/L. causes of jaundice classified into three categories including haemolytic (prehepatic) jaundice characterized by an increased breakdown of haemoglobin, hepatic jaundice due to failure of the conjugation mechanism and post hepatic or obstructive jaundice because of obstruction of biliary system. Most newborn babies are characterized with physiological or neonatal jaundice due to natural process of breaking down RBCs. As their livers are immature, they can not process bilirubin as quickly as when they are old. This increase in bilirubin concentration and has no significance to do with liver. Marshal, (2000). In clinical practice usually all the tests related to liver diseases are called liver function tests (LFT). Biochemical tests include measurement of bilirubin, the aminotransferases (ALT and AST), albumin total protein and alkaline pkosphatase in serum specimen. Albumin and total protein reflect the synthetic liver function. ALT and AST used to measure the severity of liver cells damage although they are not specific index of acute damage to hepatocytes, but they are sensitve indicators to cytoplasmic and mitochondrial membrane. Gaw, et al (1999). Increased conjugation bilirubin concentration and increased ALP activity at sinusoidal surface indicate cholestasis, a blockage in the bile flow. Prolonged cholestasis can result in severe jaundice with very high bilirubin concentration result in deposition of bile salts, characterized by itching, bleeding due to vitamin K malabsorption, cholesterol retention and dark urine with pale stool. The prothrombin time (PT) which is used to asses t he synthetic function of liver is prolonged due to cholestasis. Measurement of ÃŽ ³ glutamyl transferase can give an indication of hepatocellular enzyme induction due to drugs or alcohol. Materials and method Please refer to medical biochemistry practical book (BMS2). Result Calculation Determination of ALP The equation obtained from the graph is used to calculate the amount of phenol liberated by the action of ALP. The equation is: Y = 0.1753 The enzyme activity is measured in international unit per 1 minute (IU/1) therefore to obtain the activity, the result has to be converted first to umol/1 and then divided by the incubation time (15 minutes) as follow: (Value of phenol concentration in mmol/1 X 1000) / 15 = IU/L Patient 1: Result: 0.207 / 0.1753 = 1.18083 x 1000                                    = 1180.8 umol/L To get the enzyme activity in 1 minute:                                    = 1180.8 / 15 = 78.7 IU/L ALP enzyme activity of patient 1= 78.7 IU/L Patient 2: Result: 0.215 / 0.1753 = 1.2264 x 1000                                    = 1226.4 umol/L To get the enzyme activity in 1 minute:                                    = 1226.4 / 15 = 81.7 IU/L ALP enzyme activity of patient 2 = 81.7 IU/L Determination of bilirubin The concentration of bilirubin is calculated by using the following equation Absorbance of the test x STD concentration Absorbance of STD Result: Patient 1 = (0.413/0.431) x 350 = 335.3 umol/L Patient 2 = (0.037/0.431) x 350 = 30 umol/L The results of Aspartate transaminase (AST), albumin and total protein were provided by the tutor. Conclusion The biochemical finding shows that patient 1 may have haemolytic disease where as the other patient (patient 2) suffer from acute hepatitis. Discussion Liver function test are done to asses the integrity of the liver to carry out its normal synthetic and metabolic functions. This is achieved through series of numerical tests that reflect the healthiness of the liver when comparing the result obtained with normal reference ranges. The measurements of enzyme activities are very useful in following the progress of the liver disease once the diagnosis has been made. From the result it is obvious that patient 1 has got normal TP, ALB, AST and ALP results, which means that there is liver damage. Total protein is combined of immunoglobulin proteins and other proteins. A persons total protein level gives information about the liver damage, kidney damage and nutritional health. Albumin is small protein made in the liver. If a person suffers from liver damage, the albumin concentration will drop because the liver can not maintain the normal production of albumin. Aspartate transminase (AST) is the enzyme found in the liver, heart and muscle. Levels of this enzyme are usually assessed in conjugation with reading for other liver enzyme to determine or monitor the liver involvement. On other hand the bilirubin is very high above the normal range (hyperbilirubiaemia) and normally the bilirubin which is present in plasma is unconjugated bilirubin. Since the unconjugated bilirubin is high it indicates that is excessive red blood cells (RBCs) destruction (haemolysis) which occurs in haemolytic anaemia. Normally the red blood cells survival is 120 days, but in haemolytic anaemia is less. Because of that the RBCs are destroyed in large quantities in the RE system (particularly the spleen). When the RBCs are destroyed, the haemoglobin is released and bilirubin is produced. It is mainly produced from the haem moiety of the haemoglobin (it is also produced from myoglobin, cytochroms and peroxidase, which are widely distributed in the body). The liver can not conjugate and remove this large amount of unconjugated bilirubin and since it is protein bound the renal glomeruli can not filter it. That leads to overflow of unconjugated bilirubin in blood circulation. These mean that this patient may have haemolytic jaundice (prehepatic jaundice), because the protein synthesis is normal and ALP, AST are normal which means that there is no liver involvement. Haemolytic jaundice also occurs in haemolytic Disease of Newborn, transfusion of incompatible blood, hereditary spherocytosis and autoimmune red cell destruction. Marshall,(2000). The results of patient 2 show normal total protein, albumin and ALP. There is a slight increase in bilirubin level (hyperbilirubinaemia) and AST is above the very high. AST is an intracellular enzyme and is mostly found in the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial membrane of hepatocytes. So it is a sensitive marker for the severity of damage hepatocytes. ALP concentration usually rises in cholestasis (this is by extra-hepatic obstruction of the bile duct) but in this patient was normal, which means that the kupffer cells and sinusoidal surface is not yet damaged. Total protein and albumin were also normal and that indicates that the metabolism and synthesis in the liver is not yet affected. Bilirubin was slightly high which support that there is liver disease and due to this, there is defect of bile salt and bile pigment excretion. In addition to that, conjugation and detoxification functions are well defected because of hepatic cells damaged. These happen due to a condition called Hepatiti s (liver inflammation). Hepatitis is the common cause of acute liver injury. Acute hepatitis usually occurs due to viral infection particularly with hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D and E, but also Epstein-bar virus and cytomegalovirus or toxin (e.g. alcohol and paracetamol). Marshall, (2000) In the early stages of hepatitis, increased plasma ALT and AST activities may be the only abnormal chemical finding. There will be also an increased level of urobilinogen and bilirubin in urine (the urine will be darkened). The stool may be very pale due to impaired biliary excretion of bilirubin and urobilinogen then disappears more or less completely from the urine. Marshall, (2000) The above results reveal that liver is functioning well but partly defected because of the early stage of the disease. This patient may have acute liver disease (Acute hepatitis). To confirm these results hepatitis virus profiles should be done. Question Jaundice in the newborn is common. Why? Jaundice in the newborn is called Neonatal Jaundice. It is common because before birth, an infant get rid of bilirubin through the mothers blood and liver system. After birth, the babys liver has to take over processing on its own. The activity of the hepatic conjugation enzyme is usually low at birth but increases rapidly thereafter. Almost all newborns have higher than normal level of bilirubin; because the immaturity of their livers. In most cases, the babys system continues to develop and can soon process bilirubin. However, some infants may need medical treatment to prevent serious complications which can occur due to the accumulation of bilirubin. There are at least two significant processes that predispose normal infants to jaundice: The rate of bilirubin production is higher in infants than adults because their red blood cells have half-life and turn over more rapidly. Infants have a relatively limited ability to conjugate bilirubin and conjugation in the liver is necessary for efficient elimination. Write short notes on Gilberts disease. Gilberts disease is a harmless inherited condition in which the unconjugated bilirubin level in the blood is increased. Bilirubin is an end product of haemoglobin breakdown and it is conjugated in the liver with glucuronate. This process is catalysed by specific enzyme called uidine diophosphate glucuronyl transferase which is found in endoplasmic reticulum, which helps the body to conjugate bilirubin and get rid of it. Thus Gilberts syndrome is a genetic disorder which means that there is slight deficiency of this enzyme. Patient with Gilberts disease can have intermittent bilirubin level but the values are often increased when blood is drown after a period of fasting or during a time of concurrent viral illness or when the person is stressed, either physically or mentally. People with Gilberts syndrome are not ill but they may complain of vague abdominal discomfort and general fatigue for which no cause found. The condition is not usually apparent until adolescence or early adult life. It is sometimes discovered incidentally, in the course of investigations done for related reasons. All liver function tests (LFTs) are normal, except for serum bilirubin which is raised. X-ray and liver biopsy show that there is no liver disease. Gilberts syndrome should not be regarded as a disease and people with the syndrome are not ill.
Friday, October 25, 2019
The Metamorphosis By Franz Kafka Essay -- Metamorphosis Kafka Essays
"The Metamorphosis" By Franz Kafka Throughout literary history, certain authors are so unique and fresh in their approach to the written word that they come to embody a genre. Franz Kafka is one such author; â€Å"Die Verwandlung†or â€Å"The Metamorphosis†is one of his works that helped coin the term â€Å"Kafkaesque.†Through this novella, Kafka addresses the timeless theme of people exploit-ing others as a means to an end. He demonstrates this point through showing that a family’s unhealthy dependence on the main character results in that character’s dependence on the family.      Kafka’s unorthodox beginning of â€Å"The Metamorphosis†reads as what would seem to be a climactic moment: â€Å"As Gregor Samsa awoke one morning from uneasy dreams he found himself transformed in his bed into a gigantic insect.†The reader is henceforth bound to the story in search of the reason for and meaning of this hideous metamorphosis. Shortly thereafter, the reader may also notice that although Gregor is quite aware of his condition, given these bizarre circumstances he is not at all in the state of panic one might expect. On the contrary, the insect is frustrated that it cannot get out of bed to go to work! As Gregor tries to rouse himself from bed in his â€Å"present condition,†his observation that â€Å"he himself wasn't feeling particularly fresh and active†is macabre in its passive acknowledgment of the absurdity of his state (p. 855). This sets the tone for the remainder of the first chapter of the story. Grego r, a person typically not a hindered by â€Å"small aches and pains,†(p. 857) clings to his rational nature as he struggles with the slow-in-coming realization that he is more than â€Å"temporarily incapacitated†(p. 863).      The first chapter ends shortly after Gregor reveals his new form. The sight of the insect elicited an expected reaction; its mother understandably retreated aghast and in shock. Correspondingly, the chief clerk that had been sent by Gregor’s employer, scrambled in flight as he â€Å"had quite slipped from his mind†(p. 864). Gregor’s father was â€Å"relatively calm†(p. 865) until the chief clerk had completed a hastened retreat. Gregor’s father, spurred into action by this flight, consequently repelled the insect aggressively and injuriously back into the bedroom from which it had come.      The second chapter illustrates a family and a human-insect trying to adju... ... a perfectly normal thing to do.      Kafka uses a unique method of metaphor. He does not say, â€Å"Gregor is like a bug.†He does not say Gregor is bug in a traditional metaphor; rather he says Gregor is a bug – literally. The effect is dramatic, as the reader, by virtue of the absurdity of the literalness of situation, is swept-up in trying to stay footed in reality. The effect of this technique is that the reader continues throughout the story to ask the question: why? It is in this pursuit of ‘why’ that the reader sees Kafka’s message: Don’t treat people simply as a means, or life will have a way of turning it back on yourself. Through the transformation of Gregor, and the transformation of the family’s life, Kafka wants the reader to observe that despite Gregor’s metamorphosis into something very un-human, he remains the model of humanity when compared to his family. Not only did the family leech from Gregor, society itself seemed to call up on Gregor not as a person, but to serve as a tool to satisfy their needs. Once transformed, Gregor no longer served well in this capacity. Rather, he became the one in need, and he quickly became more of a burden than he was worth to them.
Wednesday, October 23, 2019
Current international thought and practices on the role of government auditing
Today, no 1 needs to be convinced that trust on IAs can be vitalaˆÂ ¦ The rise in stature of internal hearers therefore comes at the right clip ; Auditing resources are so scarce and dearly-won, and much is demanded of all hearers. †Ward et Al2.1 IntroductionThe aim of this chapter is to research current international idea and patterns on the capable country by placing and reexamining relevant local and foreign literature. This will put the footing for set uping a theoretical apprehension on the function of authorities auditing, both external and internal auditing, with peculiar accent on issues refering the relationship between them.2.2 AUDITING IN THE PUBLIC SECTORâ€Å" In virtually all legal powers, the populace sector plays a major function in society, and effectual administration in the public sector can promote the efficient usage of resources, strengthen answerability for the stewardship of those resources, better direction and service bringing and thereby lend to bettering people ‘s lives. †( IFAC, 2001, par.004 ) Government auditing is a basis of good public sector administration ( IIA, 2006a ) . Hearers play a important function by helping authorities entities achieve, amongst other of import aims, answerability and unity by supplying indifferent sentiments on the usage of public resources.[ 1 ] The populace sector represents a principal-agent relationship as shown in Figure 2.2 below, with the functionaries moving as the principal ‘s agents that must give history to their principal of the extent to which the populace ‘s aims have been achieved. An effectual audit activity is deemed of import in order to cut down the hazards inherited in such a relationship. Given that public sector entities are complex and diverse, no individual administration theoretical account can function all of such entities ( IIA, 2006a ) . Thus, based on the demands and fortunes, many constructions rely on a combination of audit activities including both external and internal auditing.2.2.1 External AuditingThe range of external audit in the public sector should travel beyond giving an adept sentiment on the truth and equity of the fiscal statements to integrate appraisals on facets of corporate administration and the usage of resources, normally referred to as ‘value for money ‘ ( Bourn, et. Al, 2002 ) . Furthermore, INTOSAI GOV 9150 asserted that â€Å" compared to the IA, the Supreme Audit Institution ( SAI ) has the extra undertaking of analyzing the effectivity of the IA. †Furthermore, in transporting out their work EAs are non to be hindered during the public presentation of the audit but â€Å" aˆÂ ¦shall have the right of entree at all times to the company ‘s accounting recordsaˆÂ ¦ †( Companies Act, 1995 ) . In this respect NAO ( 2009 ) specified that the Auditor General ‘s work is â€Å" facilitated by statute law which stipulates that any circumstance inhibiting such entree to information is to be reported to Parliament. †It is utile to separate between the cardinal elements of public sector audits. NAO ( 2009 ) sort its audits under the undermentioned classs:[ 2 ] fiscal and conformity audits ; public presentation audits ; particular audits and probes ; IT audits.2.2.2 Internal AuditingINTOSAI GOV 9140 highlighted that the function of internal auditing has â€Å" evolved from an administrative process with a focal point on conformity †to an indispensable constituent of administration in the populace sector. Indeed internal audit activities are seen as supplying confidence on the effectivity of public sector entities ‘ internal control environment by placing chances for public presentation betterment. Asare ( 2008 ) identified three chief elements, sometimes referred to as the ‘three pillars ‘ to explicate the function of internal auditing in the populace sector. As shown in Figure 2.3 below, these include the â€Å" rating and betterment of hazard direction, control and administration procedures. †This suggests that internal audit has continued to travel off from fiscal and conformity audits to a broader value-adding function, encompassing both consultancy and confidence activities, thereby moving as the executive arm of authorities. A brief description on each of these three pillars is summarised in Table 2.1 below:2.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF AUDITING STANDARDS AND INDEPENDENCE OF BOTH EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL AUDITORSDiplock ( 2005 ) argued that the challenge for the audit profession is to regularly reassess whether criterions are being followed and to show its independency. Over the old ages, INTOSAI members agreed that robust and dependable auditing criterions were required, underscoring that public sector scrutinizing must be underpinned by international criterions as good. As a consequence of alone cooperation between public and private sector scrutinizing at that place has been the development of International Standards of Supreme Audit Institutions ( ISSAIs )[ 3 ]. With regard to the Maltese scenario, the NAO uses the ISSAIs as guidelines of patterns that are followed when carry oning its fiscal and conformity audits. The Office besides uses International Standards on Auditing ( ISA ) of the IFAC when transporting out the audit of fiscal statements of certain public sector entities ( NAO, 2009 ) . The methodological analysis used by the IAID is based on International Standards for the Professional Practice of Internal Auditing that ( include Diagram ) is issued by the IIA ( IAID, 2010d ) . The independency of hearers, both EAs and IAs, is critical in guaranting that â€Å" public organic structures are accountable for their public presentation in footings of both stewardship of public money and the bringing of high quality services †( Bourn, et. Al, 2002 ) . Indeed Bourn, et. Al ( 2002 ) advocate that such independency ensures that they can ‘speak as they find ‘ and ‘without fright or favor ‘ in an nonsubjective manner. This has become progressively of import following the recent fiscal dirts that have brought with them the loss in credibleness in the auditing profession. Furthermore, INTOSAI GOV 9150 stated that, â€Å" IA ‘s independency is cardinal to SAIs in the issue of utilizing IA ‘s work aˆÂ ¦ to be able to organize and collaborate with an IA. †2.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL AUDITORSâ€Å" If internal audit is judged to be effectual, attempts shall be made aˆÂ ¦ to accomplish the most appropriate division or assignment of undertakings and cooperation between the SAI and Internal Audit. †( Lima Declaration, ISSAI 1, subdivision 3, par.3 ) Coordination and cooperation between SAIs and IAs is enhanced as both parties can harvest benefits in their uninterrupted thrust to accomplish efficiency and effectivity in public services. For this ground, such a relationship should be seen as an chance to beef up public sector auditing. The IIA and INTOSAI recognise the importance of such a relationship by being ‘natural spouses ‘ . They portion a common linguistic communication such as criterions ; understand several functions, duties and outlooks ( Moser, 2008 ) .2.4.1 Opportunities for Cooperation in PracticeAlthough comparatively small research has examined the countries of coordination and cooperation between I & A ; EAs in the populace sector, the following five facets of cardinal scrutinizing pattern characteristic most conspicuously in the literature: Audit planning ; Internal Controls ; Fraud and Irregularities ; Coverage ; Consultancy. Audited account Planning: INTOSAI GOV 9150 identified five chief phases during an audit procedure where SAIs may utilize the work of IAs amongst which there is the planning phase.[ 4 ]This phase is deemed to be an of import portion of the procedure for pull offing an audit map where the EA should execute a preliminary appraisal of the internal audit map. Such an appraisal will act upon the nature, timing and extent of external audit processs, depending on the SAIs judgement of the relevance of the internal audit. Audit Commission ( 2010 ) sets out the importance for the EA to place what work it will be seeking to put trust upon during the planning phase as this, â€Å" ensures that the proposed work meets the timetable and demands to enable external audit to put trust upon it. †Spencer Pickett ( 2010 ) explained that there are several degrees to which audit planning may be interfaced as shown in Figure 2.4. As can be seen in the below figure, at the extreme, it can ensue in one planning papers being prepared which, harmonizing to Spencer Pickett ( 2010 ) , is more relevant in the populace sector given that EAs tend to presume a function in procuring value for money.Figure 2.4: Interfaced Audit PlanningInternal Controls: Following the passage of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, internal control duties for both I & A ; EAs increased. Harmonizing to Engle and Joseph ( 2008 ) , this â€Å" represents an country where enormous value can be achieved through proper coordination. †The primary intent of internal audit is to measure and better the effectivity of the system of internal control.[ 5 ]On the other manus EAs are required to obtain an apprehension of the control environment prior to the readying of the fiscal statements in order to be after the audit and develop an effectual audit attack. In her survey, Colbert ( 1993 ) concluded that the IAs ‘ work can help the EA in understanding the design of the control construction by, for case, supplying system and papers flow charts of the accounting system and finding if the set system has been really put in topographic point. Fraud and Irregularities: This has been identified by HM Treasury and NAO ( 2000 ) as another possible country where information can be exchanged, given that both hearers are interested in the bar and sensing of fraud. Internal audit work in relation to fraud can be relevant to EAs when measuring the hazards of stuff misstatements found in the fiscal statements. Since IAs have greater cognition about the entity ‘s operations than EAs, fraud hazard appraisal warrant important trust on internal audit work. Such a statement is supported by surveies done by KPMG, which indicate that IAs are more likely to detect fraud than EAs ( KPMG, 2009 ) . This is illustrated in Figure 2.5 where 47 % of frauds were discovered by internal audit, legal or conformity forces compared to the 9 % of frauds detected by EAs. Coverage: One of the basic types of cooperation between hearers includes the exchange of audit certification. Audit Commission ( 2010 ) recognises that sharing of audit studies and other audit information will â€Å" heighten understanding and effectiveness †. Moeller ( 2005 ) argued that internal audit studies should be circulated to EAs as they constitute an of import agencies of maintaining the EA informed of the internal audit findings and other activities. In set abouting the work necessary to underpin an sentiment on the audited entity ‘s fiscal statements, the EA may seek to trust on the work of the IA. Audit Commission ( 2010 ) indicated that the IAs can supply the EAs with: An audit program ; Entree to scrutinize studies and associated working paper files ; Detailss of any important alterations to the audit program. Spencer Pickett ( 2010 ) further highlighted that the internal audit activity ‘s concluding communications, direction ‘s responses to such communications, together with any subsequent follow-up reappraisals can help EAs in finding and seting the range and timing of their work. Some EAs, on the other manus, may hold concerns about turning over their work documents to IAs due to their professional duties refering confidentiality and independency as highlighted by Moeller ( 2005 ) . Nonetheless their work can be â€Å" used as input to IAs in be aftering the countries to underscore in future internal audit work †Spencer Pickett ( 2010 ) . Consultancy: HM Treasury and NAO ( 2000 ) indicated that audience is cardinal to construct an effectual cooperation channel. The same position is shared by Spencer Pickett ( 2010 ) who affirmed that regular audience is indispensable in order â€Å" to utilize similar techniques, methods and nomenclature †to transport out the work. The two parties may confer with with each other even when they are non working together in a peculiar country such as confer withing on specific audit findings. Committedness, communicating and assurance were identified as three indispensable constituents that need to be present to guarantee effectual audience, as indicated in Table 2.2 below. INTOSAI GOV 9150 acknowledges that coordination and cooperation can be done either officially, where there will be formal understandings or protocols or in an informal manner based on good will such as in the instance of audiences. Other possible countries of coordination and cooperation between SAIs and IAs were identified by HM Treasury and NAO ( 2000 ) and a brief drumhead is provided below: Conformity with Laws and Regulations Since IAs continuously assess the controls over conformity with Torahs and ordinances that are internal to the Government such as Parliamentary blessing for outgo, SAIs can put trust on their work. This is of import given that most SAIs ‘ mission statement underscore the significance of the consideration of properness[ 6 ]and hence internal audit activity is utile to find whether â€Å" activities and concern have been conducted in conformity with Parliament ‘s outlooks †( HM Treasury and NAO, 2000 ) . Audited account of spread administrations Although non peculiarly applicable to Malta, this has been recognised as another country of cooperation when the audited entity is dispersed geographically. HM Treasury and NAO ( 2000 ) argued that when the two parties are allowed to work in joint squads or one of them undertakes work on behalf of the other, more economical usage of audit resources is made.Reliance on the Internal Audit ‘s WorkISSAI 200 pointed out that, â€Å" When the SAI uses the work of another hearer ( s ) , it must use equal processs to supply confidence that the other hearer ( s ) has exercised due attention and complied with relevant auditing criterions, and may reexamine the work of the other hearer ( s ) to fulfill itself as to the quality of that work. †( Section 2, par.2.45 ) Reliance by EAs on internal audit ‘s work is governed by ISSAI 1610 that farther highlighted two chief points that SAIs must see after set uping that the internal audit map is relevant to the audit. These include[ 7 ]: Whether and to what extent, to utilize the specific work of the IAs ; If so, whether such work is equal for the intents of the audit. Such standard requires EAs to reexamine IAs work, which normally involves remaking specific trials every bit good as executing a more general reappraisal. The Sharman[ 8 ]Report ( 2001 ) found that the relationship between cardinal authorities internal hearers and NAO â€Å" has non been every bit near as might hold been expected †, in portion because the focal point of internal audit has tended towards non-financial countries, doing its work of less value to those scrutinizing fiscal statements. Three major standards were identified as a common component in the surveies that examined the relationship between I & A ; EAs. These elements influence the EAs ‘ trust on IAs as shown in Figure 2.6 below.2.4.2 Potential Risks of CooperationA figure of benefits were identified from the coordination and cooperation between SAIs and IAs including amongst others, more efficient and effectual audits based on a clearer apprehension of the several audit functions and demands ( HM Treasury and NAO,2000 ) . However, INTOSAI GOV 9150 highlighted some possible hazards that could have in their relationship and that should be managed consequently in order to accomplish the full scope of benefits. The outstanding points include: Possible struggles of involvement ; Any via media of independency and objectiveness, blockading the ability to transport out an audit with an indifferent sentiment ; Premature revelation of audit findings to an external party, possible taking to a breach of confidentiality ; No consideration of restraints or limitations placed on the other hearer when finding the extent of coordination and cooperation ; Developing wrong decisions when utilizing the work of IAs ; Possible difference of decisions or sentiments which could take to a possible hazard of credibleness of either party. To accomplish a healthy relationship both parties need to be efficient and effectual as otherwise a possible menace might be if inefficient operations are in topographic point, particularly if there is trust on each other ‘s work. With mention to the Maltese scenario, the NAO conducted a survey on the ‘Internal Audit Function within Government Ministries ‘ ( NAO Report, 2000 ) .[ 9 ]This survey dates back to 1999 and no farther survey has been carried out since so. It was observed that, although the map did take to some stray benefits, it fell abruptly of the needed degree of effectivity. This was largely due to: Inadequate cardinal coordination ; Restrictions in the map ‘s independency within Ministries ; Lack of direction support ; Lacks in enlisting and preparation patterns ; Restrictions and deficiency of resources ; Other factors act uponing the effectivity of the map including the relationship between the NAO and IAs.2.5 challenges and barriers to effectual coordinationGolen ( 2008 ) highlighted that â€Å" in any on the job relationship, one has to be wholly aware of the human dealingss constituent that can originate, and the internal and external audit relationship is no exclusion. †In fact the first relevant survey sing the relationship between I & A ; EAs, realised by Mautz ( 1984 ) , as cited by Haron et Al ( 2004 ) , showed that from internal audit ‘s point of position the relationship with external audit was merely ‘ostensibly ‘ a good one. Since a working squad relationship is a cardinal constituent for an effectual and efficient independent audit, communicating jobs have a direct impact on the result of an audit. Indeed the undermentioned communicating barriers were recognised by Golen ( 2008 ) , given that, one time identified and addressed, communicating between I & A ; EAs would better.Distortion or Omission of InformationThis occurs when an component of pride influences the information exchanged negatively, as each party perceives his work as critically of import for the decision of an audit. Both parties may non lend in adequate item with regard to the information required from each other. Golen ( 2008 ) highlighted that such a barrier could be managed by â€Å" supplying an environment that encourages unfastened lines of communicating †in order to run into the aim of the audit.Lack of CredibilityThis is particularly of import from the point of view of the EA because if the latter perceives that the IAs d eficiency credibleness, he will be unwilling to put trust on the IA ‘s work. In fact, Golen ( 2008 ) argued that â€Å" some IAs see their interactions with EAs as non one of their favorite parts of the occupation because of the EAs ‘ limited usage of their work. †Such a state of affairs may ensue in tenseness and struggle. The relationship could be improved if IAs possess the cognition, accomplishments and other competences to show their value, in order for EAs to accept their work as dependable.Inclination non to listenHarmonizing to Golen ( 2008 ) , the first measure to heighten communicating is through effectual hearing as negative attitudes towards each other can be damaging to the relationship. He argued that both parties need to be open-minded by set uping a footing of seeking to derive proper information from each other without developing any premature opinions.Resistance to ChangeAnother common barrier highlighted is the EAs ‘ opposition to alter t o new constructs and processs as these may be seen as a menace. When this happens IAs may develop a feeling of bitterness that could farther decline an â€Å" already delicate relationship †Golen ( 2008 ) . Both I & A ; EAs must be willing to give adequate clip to each other to turn out the benefits that could be gained by leting for alteration.2.6 DecisionIn visible radiation of the above, one can reason that although there are some possible hazards ensuing from cooperation, working together as a squad instead than two independent groups can merely better the efficiency and effectivity of the independent audit and finally taking to a better service to the populace. Yet, such cooperation can merely boom in an environment where there is common assurance, connoting that both I & A ; EAs should follow an active function in seeking chances to organize work, where possible, in the involvements of maximizing the benefit of their work and understating duplicate of attempt.
Tuesday, October 22, 2019
A Guide to the Purchasing Power Parity Theory
A Guide to the Purchasing Power Parity Theory Purchasing-power parity (PPP) is an economic concept that states that the real exchange rate between domestic and foreign goods is equal to one, though it does not mean that the nominal exchange rates are constant or equal to one. Put another way, PPP supports the idea that identical items in different countries should have the same real prices in another, that a person who purchases an item domestically should be able to sell it in another country and have no money left over. This means that the amount of purchasing power that a consumer has does not depend on what currency with which he or she is making purchases. The Dictionary of Economics defines the PPP theory as one that states that the exchange rate between one currency and another is in equilibrium when their domestic purchasing powers at that rate of exchange are equivalent. Understanding Purchasing-Power Parity in Practice To better understand how this concept would apply to real-world economies, look at the United States dollar versus the Japanese yen. Say, for example, that one U.S. dollar (USD) can buy about 80 Japanese yen (JPY). While that would make it appear that United States citizens have less purchasing power, the PPP theory implies that there is an interaction between nominal prices and nominal exchange rates so that, for example, items in the United States that sell for one dollar would sell for 80 yen in Japan, which is a concept known as the real exchange rate. Take a look at another example. First, suppose that one USD is currently selling for 10 Mexican pesos (MXN) on the exchange rate market. In the United States, wooden baseball bats sell for $40 while in Mexico they sell for 150 pesos. Since the exchange rate is one to 10, then the $40 USD bat would only cost $15 USD if bought in Mexico. Theres an advantage to purchasing the bat in Mexico, so consumers are much better off going to Mexico to buy their bats. If consumers decide to do this, we should expect to see three things happen: American consumers desire Mexican Pesos to purchase baseball bats in Mexico. So they go to an exchange rate office and sell their American Dollars and buy Mexican Pesos, and this will cause the Mexican Peso to become more valuable relative to the U.S. Dollar.The demand for baseball bats sold in the United States decreases, so the price American retailers charge goes down.The demand for baseball bats sold in Mexico increases, so the price Mexican retailers charge goes up. Eventually, these three factors should cause the exchange rates and the prices in the two countries to change such that we have purchasing power parity. If the U.S. Dollar declines in value to a one to eight ratio to Mexican pesos, the price of baseball bats in the United States goes down to $30 each, and the price of baseball bats in Mexico goes up to 240 pesos each, we will have purchasing power parity. This is because a consumer can spend $30 in the United States for a baseball bat, or he can take his $30, exchange it for 240 pesos and buy a baseball bat in Mexico and be no better off. Purchasing Power Parity and the Long Run Purchasing-power parity theory tells us that price differentials between countries are not sustainable in the long run as market forces will equalize prices between countries and change exchange rates in doing so. You might think that my example of consumers crossing the border to buy baseball bats is unrealistic as the expense of the longer trip would wipe out any savings you get from buying the bat for a lower price. However, it is not unrealistic to imagine an individual or company buying hundreds or thousands of the bats in Mexico then shipping them to the United States for sale. It is also not unrealistic to imagine a store like Walmart purchasing bats from the lower cost manufacturer in Mexico instead of the higher cost manufacturer in Mexico. In the long run, having different prices in the United States and Mexico is not sustainable because an individual or company will be able to gain an arbitrage profit by buying the good cheaply in one market and selling it for a higher price in the other market. Since the price for any one good should be equal across markets, the price for any combination or basket of goods should be equalized. Thats the theory, but it doesnt always work in practice. How Purchasing-Power Parity is Flawed in Real Economies Despite its intuitive appeal, purchasing-power parity does not generally hold in practice because PPP relies on the presence of arbitrage opportunities - opportunities to buy items at a low price in one place and sell them at a higher price in another - to bring prices together in different countries. Ideally, as a result, prices would converge because the buying activity would push prices in one country up and the selling activity would push prices in the other country down. In reality, there are various transaction costs and barriers to trade that limit the ability to make prices converge via market forces. For example, its unclear how one would exploit arbitrage opportunities for services across different geographies, since its often difficult, if not impossible, to transport services without additional costs from one place to another. Nevertheless, purchasing-power parity is an important concept to consider as a baseline theoretical scenario, and, even though purchasing-power parity might not hold perfectly in practice, the intuition behind it does place practical limits on how much real prices can diverge across countries. Limiting Factors to Arbitrage Opportunities Anything which limits the free trade of goods will limit the opportunities people have in taking advantage of these arbitrage opportunities. A few of the larger limits are: Import and Export Restrictions: Restrictions such as quotas, tariffs, and laws will make it difficult to buy goods in one market and sell them in another. If there is a 300% tax on imported baseball bats, then in our second example it is no longer profitable to buy the bat in Mexico instead of the United States. The U.S. could also pass a law making it illegal to import baseball bats. The effect of quotas and tariffs were covered in more detail in Why Are Tariffs Preferable to Quotas?.Travel Costs: If it is costly to transport goods from one market to another, we would expect to see a difference in prices in the two markets. This even happens in places that use the same currency; for instance, the price of goods is lower in Canadian cities such as Toronto and Edmonton than it is in more remote parts of Canada such as Nunavut.Perishable Goods: It may be simply physically impossible to transfer goods from one market to another. There may be a place which sells cheap sandwic hes in New York City, but that doesnt help me if I am living in San Francisco. Of course, this effect is mitigated by the fact that many of the ingredients used in making the sandwiches are transportable, so we would expect that sandwich makers in New York and San Francisco should have similar material costs. This is the basis of the Economists famous Big Mac Index, which is detailed in their must-read article McCurrencies. Location: You cannot buy a piece of property in Des Moines and move it to Boston. Because of that real-estate prices in markets can vary wildly. Since the price of land is not the same everywhere, we would expect this to have an impact on prices, as retailers in Boston have higher expenses than retailers in Des Moines. So while purchasing power parity theory helps us understand exchange rate differentials, exchange rates do not always converge in the long run the way PPP theory predicts.
Monday, October 21, 2019
Find a Book Idea That Sells 3 Things You Must Check Before You Write Your Book
Find a Book Idea That Sells 3 Things You Must Check Before You Write Your Book Find a Book Idea That Sells: 3 Things You Must Check Before You Write Your Book If you’re about to write a book, and you want a book idea that sells, there are three things you absolutely must check before you spend a minute writing your book.Researching these three things will help you write your book more confidently because you’ll have firm reason to believe readers will love and buy your book.Once you have your book idea, and before you begin writing, you need to check that there’s:People looking for your book ideaPeople willing to pay for your book ideaCompetition you can beatThere are two ways to complete each of the following steps: an easy, low-cost way and a time-consuming, free way. I’ll explain both. No matter which method you choose, just choose one of them so you can embark on your book writing journey with confidence. 1. Are there people looking for your book idea?Before you spend weeks, months, or years laboring to create your book, smart authors validate that there are people searching for your book idea on the inte rnet first.The free method is to type in www.KWFinder.com and use their free tool that currently allows you 3 searches per day, and type in your book idea. One piece of information this site gives you is the average times per month people type and search for your term. The higher the number, the more people actively are looking for the information you’re thinking of writing about.This tool does not tell you how many people are searching for your idea on Amazon, however, which can make your results a little dicey. Sometimes people are just looking to learn free or quick information, and not actually looking to read an entire book.When people search for a topic on Amazon, however, they are there to buy something. That’s why doing this research using a software that specifically gives you Amazon data is the best option. Enter KDP Rocket. When you search for a book idea using KDP Rocket, it gives you the estimated number of times people search for your idea on Google and o n Amazon each month. And there’s no limit to how many ideas you can search per day.Here’s the results for my fictitious book idea about ‘habits’:Once you’ve verified people are searching for your book idea, the next step is to make sure they’re willing to pay for the information.2. Are there people willing to pay for your book idea?Unless you’re planning to give your book away for free, this step is crucial. If you don’t have KDP Rocket, you’ll want to head over to Amazon.com and search in the Kindle Store for your writing idea. Look at the search results that appear on the first page. For each book, scroll down to find the Amazon Best Seller Rank. You’ll probably want to create a spreadsheet now if you haven’t already to keep track of the numbers. Once you have the Best Seller Rank for each, you should put each number into the Amazon Best Seller Rank Calculator. The calculator will tell you how many books a re selling each day. If you multiply this number by 30, you’ll get the estimated money per month that book makes.If you do this for all 14 of the books that show up on the first page of your search, you can find the average your book idea makes per month. This will give you an idea if it’s profitable enough for you to pursue.  If you’re looking for the fast and easy way, you’d already have this information right at your fingertips from doing step 1 (verifying people are looking for your book). By clicking ‘Analyze’ on KDP Rocket, you can immediately learn the average earnings per month. Wow, habits is a money-maker! Look at that second column!So people are looking for your idea and they are willing to pay for your idea, but can you compete with the big dogs? 3. Can you beat the competition for your book idea?Terms like ‘habits’ are popular and profitable, but the competition is intense. You may have noticed the column called à ¢â‚¬Å"Competitive Score.†This gives you a score between 1-100 on how hard it would be to get your book to appear when people search for your term. A 1 is easy-peasy and 100 is near-impossible. I’m guessing like me, you’re not a famous author, so you’ll want to find book ideas that have lower competition. Scores in the 20s or below are my usual target. This doesn’t mean you can’t write a book about habits. This just means you might have to keep searching to refine your idea to be more specific so you can better compete. When you search in the Kindle Store for your idea, you’ll want to take note of the number of results that appear. This tells us there are 8,055 other books that rank for the term â€Å"habits†on Amazon.Next, click on the top 3 results and write down their Amazon Best Seller Rank. Find the average of these 3 numbers to find the average Best Seller Rank of the top 3 books. You should aim to get your book to rank # 1 since it gets the most clicks, and definitely be able to compete with the top 3.Then, look at the book covers, book descriptions, and reviews. Give each book a score 1-100 based on your opinion of its professionalism, design, clarity, and happiness of reviewers. If it looks like a book you could easily beat, it’s a 1. If it’s perfect and virtually unbeatable, give it 100. Having all these numbers in an excel spreadsheet will help you analyze the competition of your book idea.If that seems like a lot of work, or you don’t know how to score the competition, you’ll love what KDP Rocket can do for you. When you click on the ‘Analyze’ button to discover how much money the book idea makes, a Competitive Score was also automatically generated. For ‘habits,’ the competition is 73pretty tough. Rocket will also give you a bunch of other recommended terms to consider, so by simply scrolling down, I found ‘healthy eating habits.†™ Lower competitionbut people aren’t paying for that idea. How about ‘how to break bad habits’: See how you can still write about what you’re interested in, but simply checking the popularity, profitability, and competition can help you refine your idea from an â€Å"I hope this works idea†to â€Å"Let’s write this book already idea!†Book Idea ValidatedOnce your book idea passes these three checkpoints, then you’re on your way to confidently writing your book. Now you have reason to believe it won’t be a waste of your time and you can proceed with more assurance that you’re writing a book that will sell.To learn more about how this product can help you profitably launch your book to success, check out KDP Rocket here!
Sunday, October 20, 2019
10 Ser Conjugation Charts For Every Tense in Spanish
10 Ser Conjugation Charts For Every Tense in Spanish SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips One of the hardest parts of learning a romance language- especially one like Spanish- is verb conjugation. In Spanish, the way a verb is conjugated depends on a number of factors, including the subject, the verb tense, and the purpose of the sentence itself. That means that there are actually many versions of each verb, all of which mean something slightly different. And because so much of understanding Spanish revolves around verbs, it’s an important (though pretty confusing) part of learning Spanish as a second language. If you’re taking the AP Spanish exam, ser is one of the most critical verbs that you need to know- and know how to conjugate. Unfortunately, the conjugations for ser can be pretty tricky. But we’re here to help. In this article, we’ll give you every possible verb conjugation for the Spanish verb ser, which means â€Å"to be.†We’ll even give you a quick rundown on what ser means and when to use it! So†¦  ¡si estan listos, vamos! It's time to do like Dora and "Come on, vamanos!"Loren Javier/Flickr Every Single Ser Conjugation Chart We’ve broken down every conjugation of ser by verb tense and form! Scroll down until you see the heading for the verb tense you need, then check out the corresponding chart below. Present Indicative Yo soy Nosotros somos Tà º eres Vosotros sois Usted/El/Ella es Ustedes/Ellos/Ellas son Imperfect Indicative Yo era Nosotros à ©ramos Tà º eras Vosotros erais Usted/El/Ella era Ustedes/Ellos/Ellas eran Preterite Indicative Yo fui Nosotros fuimos Tà º fuiste Vosotros fuisteis Usted/El/Ella fue Ustedes/Ellos/Ellas fueron Future Indicative Yo serà © Nosotros seremos Tà º sers Vosotros serà ©is Usted/El/Ella ser Ustedes/Ellos/Ellas sern Conditional Yo serà a Nosotros serà amos Tà º serà as Vosotros serà ais Usted/El/Ella serà a Ustedes/Ellos/Ellas serà an Present Subjunctive Yo sea Nosotros seamos Tà º seas Vosotros seis Usted/El/Ella sea Ustedes/Ellos/Ellas sean Imperative or Command Yo - - Nosotros seamos Tà º sà © Vosotros sed Usted/El/Ella sea Ustedes/Ellos/Ellas sean Imperfect Subjunctive Note that there are two conjugations for the imperfect subjunctive. In Spanish, these conjugation forms can be used interchangeably! Yo fuera Nosotros fuà ©ramos Tà º fueras Vosotros fuerais Usted/El/Ella fuera Ustedes/Ellos/Ellas fueran Yo fuese Nosotros fuà ©semos Tà º fueses Vosotros fueseis Usted/El/Ella fuese Ustedes/Ellos/Ellas fuesen All Perfect Tenses A quick note: there are multiple perfect tenses, including the pluperfect, preterite perfect, future perfect, conditional perfect, and present perfect subjunctive, and pluperfect subjunctive. When using these forms, the construction is always as follows: Conjugation of haber + sido You’ll conjugate haber in whatever form accompanies the perfect tense. For example, if you’re using the future perfect, you’ll conjugate haber in future tense! Yo sido Nosotros sido Tà º sido Vosotros sido Usted/El/Ella sido Ustedes/Ellos/Ellas sido Dad joke of the day: "Ser" means "to be," not "two bees" Meaning and Usage of Ser As we mentioned earlier, ser means â€Å"to be†in Spanish. But if you’re studying Spanish, you know that there’s a second verb that means â€Å"to be†as well: estar. (We’ll talk about estar in another article, so you don’t need to worry about it now.) Additionally, ser is an irregular verb. That means it doesn’t follow the normal patterns of conjugations that a regular verb- ike hablar (to speak) or vivir (to live)- do. Unfortunately, there’s no easy tip, trick, or formula to help you nail the ser conjugation each and every time. The only way to make sure you know the ser conjugations is to memorize them. So how do you know when to use ser? In general, ser is used to talk about what something is. You can think of ser as a way to talk about a thing’s permanent state or a set of characteristics that don’t change. To show you how this works, here are examples of situations that require you to use ser: Time and Date If you’re talking about a specific time (on a clock) or calendar date, you should use ser. Example: Hoy es Martes.Today is Tuesday. Example: Son las dos. It’s two o’clock. Place of Origin and Nationality Whenever you’re talking about someone’s home country, state, or where they were born, use a ser conjugation. Example: Claudio es puertorriqueà ±o. Claudio is Puerto Rican. Example: El es de Alemania.He is from Germany. Occupation or Profession Use the appropriate version of ser when speaking about a person’s job, profession, or occupation. Example: Mi abuela era doctora en Chile. My grandmother was a doctor in Chile. Example: Adela es arquitecta.Adela is an architect. Religious or Political Affiliation Use ser when you’re talking about someone’s religion or the political party they belong to. Example: El presidente de los estados unidos es republicano. The president of the United States is Republican. Example: Martin es un cristiano, entonces à ©l quiere ir a una colegio cristiano.Martin is a Christian, so he wants to go to a Christian college. What Something Is Made Of When describing what something is made of, use ser. If you’re discussing how something is made, you’ll need to use a verb like hacer (to make) instead. Example: La bicicleta es de metal. The bicycle is made of metal. Example: Los boletos son de papel.The tickets are made of paper. Possession When you’re talking about what something belongs to, use ser. This is how you indicate ownership! Example: Mitzi es la perra de Miguel. Mitzi is Miguel’s dog. Example: Esos libros fueron del seà ±or Villareal.Those books belonged to Mr. Villareal. Permanent Relationships of One Person to Another Use ser to indicate how people are related to one another. Example: Ella es la amiga de Laura. She is Laura’s friend Example: Seà ±ora Mariz es la mam de Juan.Mrs. Mariz is Juan’s mother. Where an Event Is Taking Place Use a ser conjugation to talk about the time and location of a specific event. Example: La conferencia es a las siete en la noche. The conference is at seven p.m. Example: La pasada copa del mundo fue en Rusia.The last World Cup was in Russia. Essential Characteristics of People and Things When deciding between ser and estar to talk about characteristics, use ser when you’re talking about permanent, unchanging, and/or essential traits of a person or item. Example: Colombia es un paà s grande. Colombia is a big country. Example: Josà © y Clara son amables.Josà © and Clara are friendly. Generalizations If you’re talking in large generalities, use a ser conjugation. Example: La prueba fue muy difà cil. The test was very difficult. Example:  ¡Es fabuloso viajar!It’s fabulous to travel! What's Next? If you’re preparing for the AP Spanish exam, that’s great! You might also look into other classes that offer AP exams in order to maximize your college credit and weighted GPA. Wondering what a good AP score is for the AP Spanish exam? Here’s a list of the average AP scores for every AP test! One of the tricky bits about AP tests is that it’s hard to know when to start studying for them. You’re taking the AP class, after all! Here’s a handy guide to help you figure out the best time to start studying for the AP Spanish test on your own. (Spoiler alert: you do have to study for AP tests outside of the classroom, too!)
Saturday, October 19, 2019
Strategic management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6
Strategic management - Essay Example partake periodically in personal development plans in order to ensure that they remain relevant to the organization and hence support its changing/ advanced goals and mission. To begin with, the personal development plan will focus on bridging the gap between the current skills of a leader and the leadership development requirements identified in the skills audit (Mackey and Livsey, 2006). Therefore, constructing the personal development plan entails devising a methodology for empowering the leader with skills, knowledge or competencies that he/ she does not presently posses but they have been identified as necessary in the skills audit. This can be achieved by undertaking various modes of learning but since it is a personal development plan, the most appropriate method of learning is self-learning whereby the leader will undertake self-training by either relying on written materials, watching tutorial videos, or working under a mentor who will train him or her on certain set of skills (Tobin, 2000). Besides self-learning method, the leader can as well undertake traditional training by attending classes at reputable learning institutions. According to Irby and Brown (2000), the personal development plan has to be specific in regards to the skills it intends to improve or instill on the leader. Secondly, the plan has to be measurable in the sense that one is able to gauge whether the objectives of the plan have been achieved or not. Thirdly, the plan has to receive consent from relevantd stakeholders i.e. it should not create any controversy. Fourthly, it should be realistic as well as time-bound. As stated in the previous section, the personal development plan should be measurable and one practical method of assessing the outcome against personal work objectives is by assessing the speed and accuracy at which the leader achieves personal work objectives. For example, if the personal development plan was aimed at improving the negotiating skills of a leader then
Friday, October 18, 2019
Formal analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1
Formal analysis - Essay Example Thus, the author used the traditional canvas; however, his choice of the materials that he put on it is quite interesting. The first layer consists of platinum leaves. Upon them the artists put acrylic pain. In other words, the very medium is a combination of rather different approaches towards expressing one’s creative energy. As a result, the message that is sent by it is mixed one as well. Speaking of the size one might suggest that the painting is neither small, not extremely big. It is of medium size so that the details can be easily observed, but it would not take up all the space on the wall. The canvas is shaped as a square which greatly influences the perception of the painting: since the objects that are depicted on it are placed in a chaotic order at first sight, their positions greatly contrast with the right shape of the canvas. As it has been mentioned above, the artist put acrylic paint on platinum leaves. The latter are shaped in a form of a skill and create the background for the painting. That is why to a certain extent there are several dimensions in the work of art with the figures drawn by the acrylic paint on the foreground. That is why it is rather difficult to determine the unified texture of the painting. The colors that were used should be analyzed in great detail. Thus, the background is made of metal so it reflects the metallic color. However, the objects that are depicts are primarily white. Other significant colors include black (the color of the mask shaped objects), different shades of purple, blue and green (both are used while depicting the tongues). The overall style of the painting is in between surreal and abstract. On the one hand, there are some objective depicted that have eyes, mouths, teeth and tongues, which allows the audience to identify them as creatures. In the bottom of the painting there is another creature that resembles a cartoon mouse. However, all the objects are
Database systems-Entity-Relationship modelling Essay
Database systems-Entity-Relationship modelling - Essay Example A database will help to make the report generation process faster with the use of correct report generating programs. The management will have the option of having up-to-date information when it comes to decision making in Lanchester Liners. Since all the data is retrieved from a central database, the consistency of the data is guaranteed. It becomes a clear advantage of a database, since the manual file systems are vulnerable to duplicated data. The security of data can also be enhanced with the implementation of a database using passwords and other security protocols. For this company, a computerized database will make the data available to remote locations such as to a ship in the middle of a journey by the using modern communication technology. The transition from a manual file system to a database system will make the company concentrate on staff training, spending on hardware and software. The company also has employee new team of professional to maintain the technical aspects of the database. These two factors can be considered as the drawback occurring from the implementation of a database. The Business rules of the system Following Business rules have been identified according to the interview conducted with Lanchester Liners Company. 1. ... 4. Many employees are assigned to ship at a time and an employee works in a one particular ship at a time. 5. A passenger may book several excursions and a particular excursion may be booked by several passengers. 6. A Passenger may be in many cruises from time to time. A cruise takes many passengers. 7. An itinerary consists of several excursions and an itinerary may share several excursions. 8. Excursion consists of many attractions. An attraction is limited to only one excursion. 9. Some passengers may also do lecture to other passengers. ER – Model of Lanchester Liners Primary key - Foreign key - Non-prime attributes – In Red The list of Entities, Attributes, and Relationships of the system Entity Attributes Primary Key Foreign keys SHIP Ship _No - Ship Number Ship _Name Ship _No ------------- ITINERARY It_ID - Itinerary ID It_ID Sh _It * Dep _Port – Departing port Arri _Port – Arriving port Ship _No - Ship Number It_ID - Itinerary ID Ship _No It_ID Sh ip _No It_ID CRUISE Cruise_ID – Cruise ID Days of tour – Week days of the tour Tour _Operator – Tour operator’s name Cruise_ID ------------- Cr _It * Cruise_ID It_ID Cruise_ID It_ID Cruise_ID It_ID PASSENGER Pas_ID – Passenger ID Pas_Contact – Passenger contact details Pas_Name – Passenger Name Pas_ID ------------- P Assigned to Cruise_ID Pas_ID Pas_satis – Passenger satisfaction Cruise_ID Pas_ID Cruise_ID Pas_ID EXCURSION Exc_ID – Excursion ID Exc_ID -------------- Booking Exc_ID Pas_ID Exc_ID Pas_ID Exc_ID Pas_ID ATTRACTION Att _ID – Attraction ID Att_desc - Attraction Description Exc_ID Att _ID Exc_ID It _Ex * Exc_ID port_name It_ID It_ID Exc_ID It_ID Exc_ID EMPLOYEE ** Emp_Name - Employee Name Emp_ID - Employee ID Emp_phn –
The Acquisition of Tense by L1 Arabic Learners of English Language Research Proposal
The Acquisition of Tense by L1 Arabic Learners of English Language - Research Proposal Example One explanation for the difficulty is the Aspect Hypothesis. There is also a Perceptual Salience Hypothesis (Man, 1990). Others have proposed that syntactic knowledge is not impaired, rather that the cause is extra-syntactic (Prevost & White, 2000). Also for Arabic speakers, there is the problem when final consonant clusters occur which are avoided in their L1. Such phonetic differences pose difficulties (Strange, 1995). Confusion of past tenses was one of the main types of errors in tenses reported in a study of Arab learners of English at the University of Sudan (Kambal, 1980). According to the Aspect Hypothesis, â€Å"learners associate forms that mark time with the lexical aspect inherent in the meaning of the verb†(Robinson, 2008:317). Bardovi-Harlig (1998) and Anderson & Shirai (2007) are proponents of the Aspect Hypothesis. Syntactic theory is advocated by the likes of Donna Lardiere (2007) and is a development of Chomsky’s principles. She suggests that the central question is â€Å"how a learner manages to associate the particular featural specifications of the target language – that is, a syntactic representation – with their overt realization in the input†(Archibald, 2000:103). According to the syntactic theory it is either a deficiency in the knowledge of syntax or incorrect mapping of syntactic representations that cause complications in acquiring tense. The difficulty in the formation of verbal inflections in L1 Arabic Learners of English Language is due to the influence of L2 acquisition of verbal inflectional morphemes. The applicability of this Aspects Hypothesis will be tested and the alternative hypothesis offered by syntactic theory will be considered within the context of SLA (Second Language Acquisition). Children in schools are readily available subjects for study and suitable because they are at am active learning age. 30 students will be sought at 3 different proficiency levels whose first language is
Thursday, October 17, 2019
Strategic growth of ethical fashion in the luxury market Case Study
Strategic growth of ethical fashion in the luxury market - Case Study Example Recently, since the year 2005, ethical issues such as child labour, sustainable fashion, green issues, fair trade etc have gradually started to catch the attention in the UK fashion industry, when many high street brands started to catch up with the fair trade trend. One of the biggest retailers in the high street, 'Topshop' has started to collaborate with 'People tree'; which is a pure ethical brand, and launched ethical fair trade range in the year 2007. During the same time, young UK fashion designers created a new range of clothing for an established, sustainable fashion label in a competition from the 'Make Your Mark in Fashion' campaign which aims to encourage an enterprise culture among the UK's youth in London. Also, during the same period of time 'Marks and Spencers' which is a ultimately potential retailer in the UK fashion industry, has started 'Plan A' which covers green issues, fair trade, organic material etc. Their slogan 'We do it, because you want us to do it and we think it is the right thing to do.' This indicates that the major factor which constrains their business is their end consumers. Finally the ethical boom trickled down to 'Primark' which is the low end high street brand. 'Primark' has been voted as the least ethical clothing retailer in the UK, according to a survey by 'The Times Newspaper' in 2007. Also they started to lose 42% of their customer once a UK the television show; 'Panorama rightly' exposed 'Primark' as using child labour to make their cheap clothing. Eventually, in 2 the year 2008, 'Primark' has launched a fair trade organic range which contains T-shirts and jeans. Moreover, many organizations related to the ethical issues were found and are showing a rapid growth every season. In recent times fashion industry focused on 'Green Issues' with increasing awareness of the environmental problems and retailers in search of fair trade cotton could see a significant increase in its availability and
Plan Evaluation for Design Program Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Plan Evaluation for Design Program - Assignment Example The data collected will both be qualitative and quantitative in nature. Also in order to assess whether the teachers have understood the 5E’s mode of learning the teachers will be examined both as the workshops continue, and at the end of the series of workshops. The 5E’s mode of learning allows for better learning and understanding of scientific concepts in science subjects by students (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Background of the Project The program is a new mode of teaching that is more effective when compared to the traditional mode of learning. The traditional mode of learning science subjects has been the use of textbooks by teachers to deliver scientific concepts to students and then later testing to assess whether the concepts have been captured by the students (Irvin, Buehl, & Radcliffe, 2006). This mode of learning encourages memorizing of facts rather than understanding them. It is for this reason that the new 5E’s mode of learning has been in troduced. This mode of learning involves a five step series of learning where students are Engaged in the first stage of learning, the next stage is Exploration followed by Explanation, Elaboration and Evaluation. At the engagement stage, an event, question or object is used to engage the students as a connection is created between what they know and what they can do. At the exploration stage, phenomena and objects are explored and hands on activities are carried out with guidance. At the explanation stage students are allowed to explain their understanding of processes and concepts as new skills and concepts are introduced to fro better understanding. At the elaboration stage students then engage in activities that enable them to apply concepts and build on their skill and understanding. In the last stage of evaluation students engage in activities that allow them to assess their skills and knowledge and teachers assess the lesson effectiveness and student development. The goals of this project are to enable teachers of science courses in middle school, give students a learning experience that is superior to the traditional approach of teaching (Lambros, 2004). The other goal is to develop the competencies and skills of the students and teachers by addressing any learning shortcomings of the textbooks. The teachers will also be developed professionally through research-based best practice. The objectives of this project on the other hand include: To equip the teachers with peer-recognized expertise in the teaching profession. Secondly, to equip the teachers with skills and knowledge that will enable them participate actively in sustained learning through their active participation in the workshops (5E’s learning model). Thirdly, to help the students be able to analyze the scientific knowledge presented in the textbooks. Fourthly, to enable students participate actively in learning by collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting and presenting qualit ative and quantitative data and incorporating this information into the broader context of the scientific knowledge (Copeland, 2005). The project will involve two professors that will be in-charge of the workshops which will be teaching the middle school teachers everything there is to know about the 5E’s model of teaching. The program will also involve twenty five teachers from middle
Wednesday, October 16, 2019
The Acquisition of Tense by L1 Arabic Learners of English Language Research Proposal
The Acquisition of Tense by L1 Arabic Learners of English Language - Research Proposal Example One explanation for the difficulty is the Aspect Hypothesis. There is also a Perceptual Salience Hypothesis (Man, 1990). Others have proposed that syntactic knowledge is not impaired, rather that the cause is extra-syntactic (Prevost & White, 2000). Also for Arabic speakers, there is the problem when final consonant clusters occur which are avoided in their L1. Such phonetic differences pose difficulties (Strange, 1995). Confusion of past tenses was one of the main types of errors in tenses reported in a study of Arab learners of English at the University of Sudan (Kambal, 1980). According to the Aspect Hypothesis, â€Å"learners associate forms that mark time with the lexical aspect inherent in the meaning of the verb†(Robinson, 2008:317). Bardovi-Harlig (1998) and Anderson & Shirai (2007) are proponents of the Aspect Hypothesis. Syntactic theory is advocated by the likes of Donna Lardiere (2007) and is a development of Chomsky’s principles. She suggests that the central question is â€Å"how a learner manages to associate the particular featural specifications of the target language – that is, a syntactic representation – with their overt realization in the input†(Archibald, 2000:103). According to the syntactic theory it is either a deficiency in the knowledge of syntax or incorrect mapping of syntactic representations that cause complications in acquiring tense. The difficulty in the formation of verbal inflections in L1 Arabic Learners of English Language is due to the influence of L2 acquisition of verbal inflectional morphemes. The applicability of this Aspects Hypothesis will be tested and the alternative hypothesis offered by syntactic theory will be considered within the context of SLA (Second Language Acquisition). Children in schools are readily available subjects for study and suitable because they are at am active learning age. 30 students will be sought at 3 different proficiency levels whose first language is
Tuesday, October 15, 2019
Plan Evaluation for Design Program Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Plan Evaluation for Design Program - Assignment Example The data collected will both be qualitative and quantitative in nature. Also in order to assess whether the teachers have understood the 5E’s mode of learning the teachers will be examined both as the workshops continue, and at the end of the series of workshops. The 5E’s mode of learning allows for better learning and understanding of scientific concepts in science subjects by students (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Background of the Project The program is a new mode of teaching that is more effective when compared to the traditional mode of learning. The traditional mode of learning science subjects has been the use of textbooks by teachers to deliver scientific concepts to students and then later testing to assess whether the concepts have been captured by the students (Irvin, Buehl, & Radcliffe, 2006). This mode of learning encourages memorizing of facts rather than understanding them. It is for this reason that the new 5E’s mode of learning has been in troduced. This mode of learning involves a five step series of learning where students are Engaged in the first stage of learning, the next stage is Exploration followed by Explanation, Elaboration and Evaluation. At the engagement stage, an event, question or object is used to engage the students as a connection is created between what they know and what they can do. At the exploration stage, phenomena and objects are explored and hands on activities are carried out with guidance. At the explanation stage students are allowed to explain their understanding of processes and concepts as new skills and concepts are introduced to fro better understanding. At the elaboration stage students then engage in activities that enable them to apply concepts and build on their skill and understanding. In the last stage of evaluation students engage in activities that allow them to assess their skills and knowledge and teachers assess the lesson effectiveness and student development. The goals of this project are to enable teachers of science courses in middle school, give students a learning experience that is superior to the traditional approach of teaching (Lambros, 2004). The other goal is to develop the competencies and skills of the students and teachers by addressing any learning shortcomings of the textbooks. The teachers will also be developed professionally through research-based best practice. The objectives of this project on the other hand include: To equip the teachers with peer-recognized expertise in the teaching profession. Secondly, to equip the teachers with skills and knowledge that will enable them participate actively in sustained learning through their active participation in the workshops (5E’s learning model). Thirdly, to help the students be able to analyze the scientific knowledge presented in the textbooks. Fourthly, to enable students participate actively in learning by collecting, organizing, analyzing, interpreting and presenting qualit ative and quantitative data and incorporating this information into the broader context of the scientific knowledge (Copeland, 2005). The project will involve two professors that will be in-charge of the workshops which will be teaching the middle school teachers everything there is to know about the 5E’s model of teaching. The program will also involve twenty five teachers from middle
The Women of Full Metal Jacket Essay Example for Free
The Women of Full Metal Jacket Essay In Stanley Kubricks Full Metal Jacket, it is difficult to determine the role that women play simply because of the glaring lack of female characters. In total, only three women actually appear in the movie, and two of those are prostitutes; the third isnt revealed as a woman until the final 10 minutes of the film, and none of them are given names. In fact, until the snipers gender is revealed, women only play a role as objects for the soldiers amusement. In all interactions between the genders, it is obvious that the male soldiers always hold complete power over the women, able to bargain their services down to a paltry five dollars per soldier. For one of the prostitutes, a soldier even effectively acts as her pimp, determining whom she services and for how much. In contrast, the role of the female sniper completely flips this gendered scheme of power-relations by using an intermediary, her rifle, to gain power over the male soldiers. For these G.I.s, the idea that women dont exist on the battlefield is hammered into them from boot camp. This process starts when the drill instructor marches into the barracks and instructs his soldiers that they should give their gun a female name and sleep with it at night because it will be the only female company they will receive during their tour of duty. In this manner, the soldiers are directed to receive the same sort of pleasure from killing and battle that they would normally expect from a full relationship with a woman. On a more abstract level, giving the gun a female name also establishes a mindset that women are tools (another name the drill instructor frequently uses to describe the rifle) in order to achieve pleasure for the soldier. In the battlefield, the soldiers subscribe to this philosophy wholeheartedly; taking their gun with them everywhere while leaving their transitory relationships with behind. Similarly, the complete lack of female soldiers in the army se ts up an expectation in their minds that all soldiers are male: all soldiers uses their women to kill. The introduction of the female sniper severely breaks all of these preconceptions for the American soldiers in several ways. First, she is a complete departure from the previous female characters in the film. Rather than being subservient to the male G.I.s she dominates them, driving them away from an otherwise abandoned city. By using a rifle, she is in fact co-opting the tools of masculine domination that the American forces have relied on. By taking a tool that the men have identified as female, she is using her own femininity against them as a way of reversing the traditional power roles that the soldiers have come to expect. Secondly, her presence and the close proximity in which she is killed provides a more human and softer face than some of the soldiers had previously experienced. Joker in particular seems horrified by the facts of war once he is able to see the female sniper up close after she has been shot down. While some of the other soldiers are in favor of letting her suffer, Joker wants to effectively euthanize her. However, even when he makes the decision to shoot her one final time he has significant difficultly coming to grips with shooting a woman. In this way, the sniper once again demonstrates the power of her gender by forcing Joker, a self-described killer, to hesitate. Thus we can see that by making the sniper a female, Kubrick effectively utilizes her gender as a method of reversing the power roles established early in the movie and continued throughout.
Monday, October 14, 2019
Psychometrics in the Construction Industry
Psychometrics in the Construction Industry Abstract This dissertation is about evaluating the use of psychometrics in the construction industry. The document will also present the main aims and objectives of the study. A comprehensive literature study has also been carried out with the objective of gaining an in-depth understanding of the topic of psychometrics. The literature review chapter will identify a selection of the testing methods that are available on the market, test design, usage within industry and the associated costs with such tests. A methodology and potential constraints have also been identified, and finally a timetable has been proposed. The survey indicated that companies are beginning to realise the benefits of psychometric testing, 1.1 Introduction This dissertation proposal has been compiled as part of the BSc (Honours) in construction management. It is necessary for the individual to produce a research project on the subject of his/her own choice that is construction related. The topic chosen for the purposes this dissertation is that of psychometric science. 1.2 Nature of the Problem Few people in the construction industry would disagree that effective team building is essential to success; however bringing together a bunch of individuals does not automatically produce a team (Franks 2002). Teams have to be assembled by taking into account many factors, including individual skill and particularly the personal characteristics of the individual member, psychometric testing is one way of ensuring the correct team members are recruited, thus maximizing the capabilities of the team. Psychometrics covers a range of testing methods from IQ and aptitude tests to personality questionnaires and numbercy indicators. Many organisations now use this form of testing routinely in their recruitment processes especially at senior level, according to Corcoran (2005) it forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those to the role. Hampton (2002) suggests that these tests are not just limited to recruitment; they can also be used in career development to raise awareness of the individual’s own strengths and weaknesses. The need for this research stems from the fact that compared to other industries where the use of psychometrics is widespread; construction firms seem to be blind to its benefits. As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, construction could gain from a wider implementation of psychometrics in both recruitment and team development. Also if survey statistics are to be believed, up to 56% of candidates exaggerate their skills/experience on their CV. Making a recruitment decision purely on the content of a CV and interview alone, could prove to be unreliable. Whilst a CV certainly provides an overview of a candidate’s ability, it doesn’t necessarily illustrate their suitability for the role. Likewise, an applicant may handle an interview extremely well but not have the capability to deliver the role itself. Psychometric testing therefore attempts to add a third dimension to the team building/recruitment process. The need for this research is therefore obvious and will be designed to test the following hypothesis: â€Å"Psychometric testing is critical to successful team building in the Irish construction industry.†1.3 Rationale As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, it is essential that that the right people are selected for the right jobs. This rationale for this dissertation is to establish whether or not construction could benefit from the wider implementation of psychometric testing, and also to evaluate the current usage of psychometric testing in the industry. Establishing the usage of psychometric testing is a critical part of this research, it establishes the current trends in the construction industry towards recruitment and team development and once this is established it may help organisations see the way forward. To achieve this, a literature review, a pilot study and postal questionnaires shall be conducted. Initial research has indicated that the construction industry is slow to realise the benefits of testing in both recruitment and team development. Employers need to be made aware of both the advantages and disadvantages of psychometrics which enable them to make an informed decision as to whether or not psychometrics is appropriate to their organisation. 1.4 Aims The general aim of this research is to investigate if psychometric testing is either a beneficial or a counterproductive exercise to a construction organisation in the selection of team members. To establish the extent of use of psychometrics within the Irish Construction Industry. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic of psychometrics. 1.5 Objectives of the Research To provide a general overview of the topic of psychometric science. To review the range of testing methods available. To establish the apparent advantages and disadvantages to a construction organisation in adopting psychometric testing. To assess the current usage of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. 1.6 Hypothesis â€Å"The benefits of Psychometric Testing are not fully appreciated in the Irish Construction Industry†1.7 Outline Methodology The methodology section for this dissertation will provide a rationale for the choice and use of particular strategies and tools for gathering and analyzing the data. A quantitative research strategy was used as part of the methodology, which helped in the execution of both the literature review and the questionnaire. The literature review was one the first stages of the methodology; this was used to highlight the importance of using psychometric testing in both recruitment and team building. The methodology also involved the production of structured questionnaire; these were compiled to assess the current usage of psychometric testing among organisations within the Irish Construction Industry. A pilot study of the questionnaire was first conducted to provide a trial run for the questionnaire, which involves testing the wording of the questions and identifying any ambiguous questions. A detailed analysis of the results was then produced; it will consist of questions, answers, tables, figures and charts to represent the data. Finally an interview was conducted with a member of an organisation utilising psychometrics as part of their recruitment process. Methodology 2.1 Introduction This chapter will set out to outline the methods of data collection that were adopted for the purposes of the dissertation. The methodology chapter for this dissertation of 4 main parts: A general definition and review of the approach to the research. A justification for the selection of the hypothesis, aims and objectives. A description of the data collection and analytical procedures. A review of the methodological complexities that were encountered, including the limitations and constraints on the research. 2.2 Research Strategy A primarily quantitative research strategy was adopted for the purposes of this dissertation. The rationale for the selection of this method is that quantitative research is used when the individual needs to identify facts about a concept, question or an attribute. This ties in closely with the objectives and aims of the report. Naoum (1998) describes quantitative research as â€Å"an inquiry into a social or human problem, this closely relates to the initial aims objectives of the research†2.3 Theoretical Framework This dissertation will be approached using a both sociological and psychological framework. The former of which is concerned with cultural roles, norms and values and the structuring and functioning of society. Also explored will be the psychological aspects such as personality traits and relationships between individual team members. 2.4 Historical Framework One of the first attempts to scientifically measure the differences between individuals was made by Sir Francis Galton in the 19th Century when he tried to show how the human mind could be systematically mapped into different dimensions, identifying how individuals differed in terms of their ability. The psychological approach and the first published test can be credited to Sir Alfred Binet. 2.5 Psychological Framework Psychometric testing is fundamentally a form of psychological assessment, Postal Questionnaires Postal questionnaires along with a cover letter will be distributed to a number of Irish construction firms to gather information on the current usage and the popularity of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. Before these questionnaires are distributed, it will be necessary to complete a pilot study before the final data is collected. The pilot study will provide a trial run for the questionnaire, and its main aim is to test the wording of the questions, identify any ambiguous questions and test the techniques being used Once the pilot study is complete, the main questionnaire will be distributed. To establish an accurate sample of the industry, it will be necessary to get a minimum number of responses to the main questionnaire. This number will be determined by the constraints of time imposed on the research, however it is expected that this will be in the region of 10-15 responses. This study will be primarily aimed at the larger construction firms in the industry. A random selection procedure will be adopted, to ensure that a representative sample of the firms is taken. Where possible, questionnaires will be delivered and collected to ensure a high response rate. Otherwise when replies are not received, the enquiries will be followed up by subsequent emails and phone calls.Tables, graphs, bar charts and histograms have been identified as a means of presenting the data from the questionnaires. The Research Sample Due to the relatively high costs involved in the implementation of psychometric instruments, the smaller organisations in the industry tend to avoid using this method of recruitment and team development. To establish an accurate representation of the industry, the research sample was confined to those in the Top 100 Irish construction companies (The Times, 2007). This sample was further refined down 35 using a random selection procedure. The types of organisation were sampled from a number of different disciplines within the construction industry, including: 1. Civil Engineering Contractor’s 2. Building Contractor’s 3. Building Services Contractor’s 4.Project Management organisations 5. Engineering Consultants 6. Multi-disciplinary organisations Literature Review This paper reviews the literature on psychometric testing by employers, and considers whether or not psychometric testing is a critical element of the recruitment process. It will seek to outline the fundamental benefits associated with the concept of psychometric testing and determine current trends regarding the usage of these tests in the Irish Construction Industry. According to Reber (1995) psychometric testing has been defined as â€Å"Pertaining to mental testing in any of its facets, including assessment of personality, evaluation of intelligence, determining aptitudes.†Rust (2004) classifies these tests into two broad categories: those that assess ability and those that assess personality. The way that organizations operate has changed dramatically in the last 30 years, there are now fewer levels of management than there were, and management styles tend to be less autocratic. In addition, there appears to be a move towards more knowledge based and customer focused jobs, which means that individuals have more autonomy even in the lower levels within organizations (Edenborough 2004). The effects of these changes mean that a person’s personality is seen as more important now than it was in the past. The structure of the modern workforce within the Irish Construction Industry is also rapidly changing and teamwork is becoming increasingly important, here a psychometric test can prove an invaluable tool, not only does it make sure that each team has the required skills but it also ensures that the people who make up team can work well together or that they can â€Å"gel effectively†. An article in China Staff magazine (2003) points out that this doesn’t mean that everybody in the team should be the same, rather than that you end up with a combination of personalities who can work well together. Each type of test may not suit every organisation, the design of a testing procedure must be based on what the user is wishing to achieve from the results. Burke (1995) suggests that the various types of â€Å"tests are designed for a purpose and the use of a particular test will vary according to the objectives of the assessment. In order to ascertain which tests you should use, it is necessary to gain an in-depth understanding of the characteristics necessary to perform well at the job. Recruitment and Selection Many organisations now use psychometric testing routinely in their recruitment process especially at a senior level. It forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those of the role. It makes for sound selection decisions and identifies development areas for the successful candidate (Corcoran 2005). Ideally, if psychometrics is used at the initial selection stage, employers are immediately aware of any areas ability or personality where an employee might not be an exact match for the job, and can make informed decisions as to whether the employee should be selected and trained, or rejected. Type of Testing Available Personality Measurement Tests These tests are used to assess how a person is likely to react to situations with people, the types of relationship they prefer to establish with others, and the motivational factors that influence a person’s actions. These are often known as tests of disposition. These tests do not generally contain questions to which there is only one correct answer. The answers given to these questions tend to reflect a tendency to interpret situations or respond to other people in particular ways. Burke (1995) outlines the typical qualities assessed by disposition tests; these include anxiety, sociability, perseverance, dominance, fear of failure and resistance to stress. A common approach to in psychometrics is to see personality as a combination of traits. A trait can be any characteristic way of behaving, thinking, feeling or operating. The measure of these ‘traits’ has always been a matter of interest for many years, it has been recognized that personality is of great impo rtance in peoples success at work, no less than the approach they take in other aspects of their life (Edenbourgh 2005). Psychologists often refer to these as the ‘big five’ personality traits. Openness appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. Conscientiousness a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior. Extraversion energy, positive emotions, urgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others. Agreeableness a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. Neuroticism a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability; sometimes called emotional instability. The argument runs that personality questionnaires do not test behavior directly but rather how the respondent chooses to describe his or her own behavior. It also argued by Cronbach (1966) that such questionnaires or self-report inventories, as they are sometimes known, indicate typical behavior. One corollary to this view by Reber(1995) is that such behavior is not very amenable to change, these type of tests have no right or wrong answers as such, however there is certainly the right and wrong personality mixes for certain jobs. Ability and Aptitude Tests ‘Aptitude’ and ‘Ability’ tests are not always precisely separated; many of the tests in these categories are used to look at behavior, often of an intellectual or cognitive nature. These are usually tests of general intelligence, which can be regarded as mental horsepower or as measure of a person’s ability to process information. Tests of ability generally assess the broader areas of what a person can do. While scores on such tests are influenced by education and training, they are not designed to assess specific areas of knowledge or skill. Examples of ability tests are: measures of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning and mechanical reasoning. China Staff magazine (2003) defines ability testing â€Å"as a measure of a persons potential to learn the new skills needed for a new job or to cope with the demands of a training course.†Tests of aptitude on the other hand are often used to assess how well an individual is likely to perform in a training programme or in a job Edenbourgh (2005) attempts to distinguish between the two: The term ‘aptitude’ is usually reserved for those tests directed at predicting whether skill in a particular area can be acquired. ‘Ability tests’ on the other hand tend to be reserved for measures of less job-specific though often still job-related intellectual tests. Attainment Tests These are often referred to as achievement tests; these are more commonly used in relation to educational assessment rather than in occupational settings. They represent standard ways of assessing the amount of skill currently reached or attained by an individual in a particular area. Tests of attainment are often linked with ability and can be quite similar; the difference is that they test specifically what people have learnt e.g. mathematical ability or typing skills. Of course what people have learned does depend on their ability in that domain in the first place, so the scores of the two types of test are linked. Another differentiation between the two is that ability tests are retrospective in nature; they focus on what has been learnt and on what a person knows and can do now. Ability tests on the other hand are prospective: they focus on what candidates are capable of learning and achieving in the future or on their potential to learn. (China Staff Magazine 2003) Assessment Centres Psychometric testing often takes place within the context of an assessment centre. Edenbourgh (2004) points outs that organisations use a range of selection methods, including interviews, group exercises, role-playing, in-basket exercises as well as psychometric testing in order to select from a group of job applicants. Candidates are likely to encounter tests that will simulate situations that are likely to be encountered in a particular role. Assessment centre selection methods can take one or two days to complete, and because of the cost and time taken these are generally only associated with larger organisations. Assessment centers are usually used after the initial stages of the selection process and usually follow the initial job interview. They are commonly held either on employers’ premises or in a hotel and are considered by many organizations to be the fairest and most accurate method of selecting staff. This according to Psychometric Success is because â€Å"a number of different selectors will get to see the individual over a longer period of time and have the chance to see what he/she do, rather than what the individual says they can do.†Tests that are carried out within these assessment centres are often conducted by HR personnel however it is often the case that external consultants will be brought in to administer the tests. Ability to distinguish between candidates Any selection tool should be able to distinguish between candidates in two ways: 1) The tool should be accurate and precise. Any differences in results between candidates should be real and not simply random or due to errors or inaccuracies. This is known as reliability, and psychometric tools have consistently been shown to be more reliable than other common selection methods. 2) The differences in results between candidates should reflect differences in their ability to perform in the job. This is known as criterion-related validity. As shown in Diagram 3, psychometric tools do predict job performance well, provided that the right tool has been chosen, for example, via a careful analysis of the attributes required for the job. Differences in results do therefore relate to differences in ability to perform well in the job. The importance of getting this right is one reason why most instruments are only sold to those who have been trained in their use. Reliability One of the main problems associated with psychometric testing is the issue of test reliability. For instance, if there is high competition for a job then there is strong incentive for candidates to present themselves favorably. Similarly candidates can be tempted to respond to personality questionnaires in a way they assume the employer wants. If we consider a construction related job, how many candidates will disagree with the statement I enjoy working in team environment? Edenbourgh (2005) identifies one way of increasing the reliability in personality questionnaires, this is to use forced-choice formats whereby candidates are presented with a combination of statements and must indicate a preference between them, this method of combining items is known as ‘ipsative’ scaling. This can be contrasted with the ‘normative scaling’, in which the candidate is instructed to choose one statement from a selection of 2 or more. For example in an ipsative test, a question might ask a candidate to choose whether they are more hard working or creative. In this case the candidate cannot make themselves look good on both of the statements, it therefore can be said that this method can increase the reliability of certain tests and give the assessor a greater profile of the candidate’s personality. Disadvantages to Psychometric Testing In many cases, psychometric tests and questionnaires have been put together by people with little background in psychometrics and they may have very little actual utility and value for the purposes for which they are marketed. Although British Psychological Society (BPS) has a standard qualification system, it is not unusual for tests to be used by people who are not adequately trained to score them. Also just because a person attends a recognized training course it cannot be guaranteed that they will use tests and questionnaires correctly since some instruments, particularly personality questionnaires, require considerable experience and the possibility of poor interpretation of results is ever-present. Another disadvantage of psychometric testing is the use of personality questionnaires to assess an individual’s ability or skill in a particular area. For example, if a person scores highly on a test called Leadership, this does not mean that he or she will actually possess a high level of leadership skill, instead it means that the individual has the basic personality characteristics that are commonly found amongst effective leaders and, with sufficient experience and given the development of certain necessary skills, has the potential to become an effective leader. (Team Focus 2004) Cost The costs associated with these tests are often substantial. This implies that employers are unlikely to be using them merely in order to follow a management trend, but because they firmly believe that the tests are useful in recruiting job applicants with the right skills and attributes. According to a recent survey by Incomes Data Services (IDS 2000), the sums involved in testing can be quite substantial. Assuming that employers prefer to administer and interpret the tests themselves, rather than employing external consultants, then the costs will include initial training in test use, since it is necessary to be qualified in order to use tests. Further costs will include start-up kits such as manuals or computer software, and consumables such as question-and-answer booklets for test candidates. (Jenkins 2001) In order to become a trained assessor, a person needs to obtain certification from the British Psychological society (BPA), and requires the completion of two courses, Level A and Level B. The BPS Level A covers the use and interpretation of ability tests. The BPS Level B covers the use and interpretation of personality tests. In general the test companies will often provide courses leading to these qualifications. These courses usually take about five days for each of Level A and Level B. The average cost per trainee is about â‚ ¬1,900 for Level A and about â‚ ¬2,200 for Level B. It is possible to train some employees to be test administrators, rather than test users, although at least one person in the organisation must be a qualified test user if the company is to be permitted to buy tests. Test administrators can brief candidates prior to testing, and hand out and collect test papers, but cannot score tests, except under supervision, nor interpret the results. Source: IDS survey of British companies Training to become a test administrator is often cheaper than becoming a test user and a fee of perhaps â‚ ¬1000 would be charged for a test administrator course. However, it is likely that larger companies would want to have several people qualified to test user standard, as well as more employees qualified to administer the tests. According to Edenborough (2004) the major component of cost is the expense of training company staff to be able to obtain and utilize the tests properly, precise costs of psychometric tests will vary but say; in a recruitment context it is unlikely that the expenses are to be more than a couple of percent of a salary. The benefits concerned are also likely to dwarf such figure. Estimating the cost-benefit of psychometric instruments Companies can examine the effect of a recruitment process on a company’s performance by analyzing how well a candidate performs in the role and therefore how much they add to productivity, and balancing this against the investment in their recruitment. Research across a range of organisations suggests that the amount an employer can save, per employee recruited, per year, is: (Validity of the test) multiplied by (Caliber of those selected) multiplied by (Standard deviation of job performance) Minus (Cost of the selection) divided by (Proportion of applicants selected) This formula, known as the utility equation, may look complex, but it has successfully been used by HR professionals in order to justify the use of psychometric instruments and other objective assessment methods. (McHenry 1990) Calculating the cost benefits of psychometric instruments The utility equation can be used to calculate the financial benefit of using psychometric testing as part of an organisations selection process. An example of this would be a company recruiting a person for a position with a â‚ ¬60,000 salary, is possible to compare the financial benefit achieved by using a recruitment process of unstructured interviews that have a validity of 0.18, compared to using personality questionnaires and ability tests that have a combined validity of 0.60. (See table in Appendix 1) Using the utility equation and a conservative estimate of the extent to which this position will impact on company productivity, it can be predicted that using psychometric tools would increase the organization’s productivity by â‚ ¬8,520 compared to using unstructured interviews. This calculation assumes that the candidate remains in the job for one year; if they remain for three years the productivity increase can be as much as â‚ ¬25,160. Source: McHenry (1990) Current Usage within Industries According to Psychometric Success testing is now used by over 80% of the Fortune 500 companies in the USA and by over 75% of the Times Top 100 companies in the UK. Information technology companies, financial institutions, management consultancies, local authorities, the civil service, police forces, fire services and the armed forces all make extensive use of use psychometric testing. In 2006 a survey identified that well over 2,500 personality questionnaires are available on the market, this number is increasing each year as dozens of new companies appear with their own ‘new’ products. The reasons for test use suggest that the perceived objectivity of tests, their predictive abilities, as well as their ability to filter out unsuitable candidates were important reasons for test use in both the public and private sectors, however according Jenkins (2001) equal opportunities legislation may have also encouraged employers to use tests as part of a drive to fairer selection. There are also a number of studies linking increases in test use to the spread of greater professionalism in the human resource management function, and to multi-national companies imposing standard selection procedures throughout their businesses. It has been estimated that it can cost organisations the equivalent of the whole of the first years costs (salary and any other benefits) to put right a wrong recruitment decision. Research reported in a number of test manuals shows that using good assessments professionally as part of the recruitment process dramatically increases the number of right dec isions you make. In order to establish reasons for organisations use of psychometric testing, it was necessary to look at statistics carried on British organisations, due to the limited availability of published research in Ireland. Surveys carried out by Bevan and Fryatt (1988) and by Psychometrics in the Construction Industry Psychometrics in the Construction Industry Abstract This dissertation is about evaluating the use of psychometrics in the construction industry. The document will also present the main aims and objectives of the study. A comprehensive literature study has also been carried out with the objective of gaining an in-depth understanding of the topic of psychometrics. The literature review chapter will identify a selection of the testing methods that are available on the market, test design, usage within industry and the associated costs with such tests. A methodology and potential constraints have also been identified, and finally a timetable has been proposed. The survey indicated that companies are beginning to realise the benefits of psychometric testing, 1.1 Introduction This dissertation proposal has been compiled as part of the BSc (Honours) in construction management. It is necessary for the individual to produce a research project on the subject of his/her own choice that is construction related. The topic chosen for the purposes this dissertation is that of psychometric science. 1.2 Nature of the Problem Few people in the construction industry would disagree that effective team building is essential to success; however bringing together a bunch of individuals does not automatically produce a team (Franks 2002). Teams have to be assembled by taking into account many factors, including individual skill and particularly the personal characteristics of the individual member, psychometric testing is one way of ensuring the correct team members are recruited, thus maximizing the capabilities of the team. Psychometrics covers a range of testing methods from IQ and aptitude tests to personality questionnaires and numbercy indicators. Many organisations now use this form of testing routinely in their recruitment processes especially at senior level, according to Corcoran (2005) it forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those to the role. Hampton (2002) suggests that these tests are not just limited to recruitment; they can also be used in career development to raise awareness of the individual’s own strengths and weaknesses. The need for this research stems from the fact that compared to other industries where the use of psychometrics is widespread; construction firms seem to be blind to its benefits. As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, construction could gain from a wider implementation of psychometrics in both recruitment and team development. Also if survey statistics are to be believed, up to 56% of candidates exaggerate their skills/experience on their CV. Making a recruitment decision purely on the content of a CV and interview alone, could prove to be unreliable. Whilst a CV certainly provides an overview of a candidate’s ability, it doesn’t necessarily illustrate their suitability for the role. Likewise, an applicant may handle an interview extremely well but not have the capability to deliver the role itself. Psychometric testing therefore attempts to add a third dimension to the team building/recruitment process. The need for this research is therefore obvious and will be designed to test the following hypothesis: â€Å"Psychometric testing is critical to successful team building in the Irish construction industry.†1.3 Rationale As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, it is essential that that the right people are selected for the right jobs. This rationale for this dissertation is to establish whether or not construction could benefit from the wider implementation of psychometric testing, and also to evaluate the current usage of psychometric testing in the industry. Establishing the usage of psychometric testing is a critical part of this research, it establishes the current trends in the construction industry towards recruitment and team development and once this is established it may help organisations see the way forward. To achieve this, a literature review, a pilot study and postal questionnaires shall be conducted. Initial research has indicated that the construction industry is slow to realise the benefits of testing in both recruitment and team development. Employers need to be made aware of both the advantages and disadvantages of psychometrics which enable them to make an informed decision as to whether or not psychometrics is appropriate to their organisation. 1.4 Aims The general aim of this research is to investigate if psychometric testing is either a beneficial or a counterproductive exercise to a construction organisation in the selection of team members. To establish the extent of use of psychometrics within the Irish Construction Industry. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic of psychometrics. 1.5 Objectives of the Research To provide a general overview of the topic of psychometric science. To review the range of testing methods available. To establish the apparent advantages and disadvantages to a construction organisation in adopting psychometric testing. To assess the current usage of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. 1.6 Hypothesis â€Å"The benefits of Psychometric Testing are not fully appreciated in the Irish Construction Industry†1.7 Outline Methodology The methodology section for this dissertation will provide a rationale for the choice and use of particular strategies and tools for gathering and analyzing the data. A quantitative research strategy was used as part of the methodology, which helped in the execution of both the literature review and the questionnaire. The literature review was one the first stages of the methodology; this was used to highlight the importance of using psychometric testing in both recruitment and team building. The methodology also involved the production of structured questionnaire; these were compiled to assess the current usage of psychometric testing among organisations within the Irish Construction Industry. A pilot study of the questionnaire was first conducted to provide a trial run for the questionnaire, which involves testing the wording of the questions and identifying any ambiguous questions. A detailed analysis of the results was then produced; it will consist of questions, answers, tables, figures and charts to represent the data. Finally an interview was conducted with a member of an organisation utilising psychometrics as part of their recruitment process. Methodology 2.1 Introduction This chapter will set out to outline the methods of data collection that were adopted for the purposes of the dissertation. The methodology chapter for this dissertation of 4 main parts: A general definition and review of the approach to the research. A justification for the selection of the hypothesis, aims and objectives. A description of the data collection and analytical procedures. A review of the methodological complexities that were encountered, including the limitations and constraints on the research. 2.2 Research Strategy A primarily quantitative research strategy was adopted for the purposes of this dissertation. The rationale for the selection of this method is that quantitative research is used when the individual needs to identify facts about a concept, question or an attribute. This ties in closely with the objectives and aims of the report. Naoum (1998) describes quantitative research as â€Å"an inquiry into a social or human problem, this closely relates to the initial aims objectives of the research†2.3 Theoretical Framework This dissertation will be approached using a both sociological and psychological framework. The former of which is concerned with cultural roles, norms and values and the structuring and functioning of society. Also explored will be the psychological aspects such as personality traits and relationships between individual team members. 2.4 Historical Framework One of the first attempts to scientifically measure the differences between individuals was made by Sir Francis Galton in the 19th Century when he tried to show how the human mind could be systematically mapped into different dimensions, identifying how individuals differed in terms of their ability. The psychological approach and the first published test can be credited to Sir Alfred Binet. 2.5 Psychological Framework Psychometric testing is fundamentally a form of psychological assessment, Postal Questionnaires Postal questionnaires along with a cover letter will be distributed to a number of Irish construction firms to gather information on the current usage and the popularity of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. Before these questionnaires are distributed, it will be necessary to complete a pilot study before the final data is collected. The pilot study will provide a trial run for the questionnaire, and its main aim is to test the wording of the questions, identify any ambiguous questions and test the techniques being used Once the pilot study is complete, the main questionnaire will be distributed. To establish an accurate sample of the industry, it will be necessary to get a minimum number of responses to the main questionnaire. This number will be determined by the constraints of time imposed on the research, however it is expected that this will be in the region of 10-15 responses. This study will be primarily aimed at the larger construction firms in the industry. A random selection procedure will be adopted, to ensure that a representative sample of the firms is taken. Where possible, questionnaires will be delivered and collected to ensure a high response rate. Otherwise when replies are not received, the enquiries will be followed up by subsequent emails and phone calls.Tables, graphs, bar charts and histograms have been identified as a means of presenting the data from the questionnaires. The Research Sample Due to the relatively high costs involved in the implementation of psychometric instruments, the smaller organisations in the industry tend to avoid using this method of recruitment and team development. To establish an accurate representation of the industry, the research sample was confined to those in the Top 100 Irish construction companies (The Times, 2007). This sample was further refined down 35 using a random selection procedure. The types of organisation were sampled from a number of different disciplines within the construction industry, including: 1. Civil Engineering Contractor’s 2. Building Contractor’s 3. Building Services Contractor’s 4.Project Management organisations 5. Engineering Consultants 6. Multi-disciplinary organisations Literature Review This paper reviews the literature on psychometric testing by employers, and considers whether or not psychometric testing is a critical element of the recruitment process. It will seek to outline the fundamental benefits associated with the concept of psychometric testing and determine current trends regarding the usage of these tests in the Irish Construction Industry. According to Reber (1995) psychometric testing has been defined as â€Å"Pertaining to mental testing in any of its facets, including assessment of personality, evaluation of intelligence, determining aptitudes.†Rust (2004) classifies these tests into two broad categories: those that assess ability and those that assess personality. The way that organizations operate has changed dramatically in the last 30 years, there are now fewer levels of management than there were, and management styles tend to be less autocratic. In addition, there appears to be a move towards more knowledge based and customer focused jobs, which means that individuals have more autonomy even in the lower levels within organizations (Edenborough 2004). The effects of these changes mean that a person’s personality is seen as more important now than it was in the past. The structure of the modern workforce within the Irish Construction Industry is also rapidly changing and teamwork is becoming increasingly important, here a psychometric test can prove an invaluable tool, not only does it make sure that each team has the required skills but it also ensures that the people who make up team can work well together or that they can â€Å"gel effectively†. An article in China Staff magazine (2003) points out that this doesn’t mean that everybody in the team should be the same, rather than that you end up with a combination of personalities who can work well together. Each type of test may not suit every organisation, the design of a testing procedure must be based on what the user is wishing to achieve from the results. Burke (1995) suggests that the various types of â€Å"tests are designed for a purpose and the use of a particular test will vary according to the objectives of the assessment. In order to ascertain which tests you should use, it is necessary to gain an in-depth understanding of the characteristics necessary to perform well at the job. Recruitment and Selection Many organisations now use psychometric testing routinely in their recruitment process especially at a senior level. It forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those of the role. It makes for sound selection decisions and identifies development areas for the successful candidate (Corcoran 2005). Ideally, if psychometrics is used at the initial selection stage, employers are immediately aware of any areas ability or personality where an employee might not be an exact match for the job, and can make informed decisions as to whether the employee should be selected and trained, or rejected. Type of Testing Available Personality Measurement Tests These tests are used to assess how a person is likely to react to situations with people, the types of relationship they prefer to establish with others, and the motivational factors that influence a person’s actions. These are often known as tests of disposition. These tests do not generally contain questions to which there is only one correct answer. The answers given to these questions tend to reflect a tendency to interpret situations or respond to other people in particular ways. Burke (1995) outlines the typical qualities assessed by disposition tests; these include anxiety, sociability, perseverance, dominance, fear of failure and resistance to stress. A common approach to in psychometrics is to see personality as a combination of traits. A trait can be any characteristic way of behaving, thinking, feeling or operating. The measure of these ‘traits’ has always been a matter of interest for many years, it has been recognized that personality is of great impo rtance in peoples success at work, no less than the approach they take in other aspects of their life (Edenbourgh 2005). Psychologists often refer to these as the ‘big five’ personality traits. Openness appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. Conscientiousness a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior. Extraversion energy, positive emotions, urgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others. Agreeableness a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. Neuroticism a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability; sometimes called emotional instability. The argument runs that personality questionnaires do not test behavior directly but rather how the respondent chooses to describe his or her own behavior. It also argued by Cronbach (1966) that such questionnaires or self-report inventories, as they are sometimes known, indicate typical behavior. One corollary to this view by Reber(1995) is that such behavior is not very amenable to change, these type of tests have no right or wrong answers as such, however there is certainly the right and wrong personality mixes for certain jobs. Ability and Aptitude Tests ‘Aptitude’ and ‘Ability’ tests are not always precisely separated; many of the tests in these categories are used to look at behavior, often of an intellectual or cognitive nature. These are usually tests of general intelligence, which can be regarded as mental horsepower or as measure of a person’s ability to process information. Tests of ability generally assess the broader areas of what a person can do. While scores on such tests are influenced by education and training, they are not designed to assess specific areas of knowledge or skill. Examples of ability tests are: measures of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning and mechanical reasoning. China Staff magazine (2003) defines ability testing â€Å"as a measure of a persons potential to learn the new skills needed for a new job or to cope with the demands of a training course.†Tests of aptitude on the other hand are often used to assess how well an individual is likely to perform in a training programme or in a job Edenbourgh (2005) attempts to distinguish between the two: The term ‘aptitude’ is usually reserved for those tests directed at predicting whether skill in a particular area can be acquired. ‘Ability tests’ on the other hand tend to be reserved for measures of less job-specific though often still job-related intellectual tests. Attainment Tests These are often referred to as achievement tests; these are more commonly used in relation to educational assessment rather than in occupational settings. They represent standard ways of assessing the amount of skill currently reached or attained by an individual in a particular area. Tests of attainment are often linked with ability and can be quite similar; the difference is that they test specifically what people have learnt e.g. mathematical ability or typing skills. Of course what people have learned does depend on their ability in that domain in the first place, so the scores of the two types of test are linked. Another differentiation between the two is that ability tests are retrospective in nature; they focus on what has been learnt and on what a person knows and can do now. Ability tests on the other hand are prospective: they focus on what candidates are capable of learning and achieving in the future or on their potential to learn. (China Staff Magazine 2003) Assessment Centres Psychometric testing often takes place within the context of an assessment centre. Edenbourgh (2004) points outs that organisations use a range of selection methods, including interviews, group exercises, role-playing, in-basket exercises as well as psychometric testing in order to select from a group of job applicants. Candidates are likely to encounter tests that will simulate situations that are likely to be encountered in a particular role. Assessment centre selection methods can take one or two days to complete, and because of the cost and time taken these are generally only associated with larger organisations. Assessment centers are usually used after the initial stages of the selection process and usually follow the initial job interview. They are commonly held either on employers’ premises or in a hotel and are considered by many organizations to be the fairest and most accurate method of selecting staff. This according to Psychometric Success is because â€Å"a number of different selectors will get to see the individual over a longer period of time and have the chance to see what he/she do, rather than what the individual says they can do.†Tests that are carried out within these assessment centres are often conducted by HR personnel however it is often the case that external consultants will be brought in to administer the tests. Ability to distinguish between candidates Any selection tool should be able to distinguish between candidates in two ways: 1) The tool should be accurate and precise. Any differences in results between candidates should be real and not simply random or due to errors or inaccuracies. This is known as reliability, and psychometric tools have consistently been shown to be more reliable than other common selection methods. 2) The differences in results between candidates should reflect differences in their ability to perform in the job. This is known as criterion-related validity. As shown in Diagram 3, psychometric tools do predict job performance well, provided that the right tool has been chosen, for example, via a careful analysis of the attributes required for the job. Differences in results do therefore relate to differences in ability to perform well in the job. The importance of getting this right is one reason why most instruments are only sold to those who have been trained in their use. Reliability One of the main problems associated with psychometric testing is the issue of test reliability. For instance, if there is high competition for a job then there is strong incentive for candidates to present themselves favorably. Similarly candidates can be tempted to respond to personality questionnaires in a way they assume the employer wants. If we consider a construction related job, how many candidates will disagree with the statement I enjoy working in team environment? Edenbourgh (2005) identifies one way of increasing the reliability in personality questionnaires, this is to use forced-choice formats whereby candidates are presented with a combination of statements and must indicate a preference between them, this method of combining items is known as ‘ipsative’ scaling. This can be contrasted with the ‘normative scaling’, in which the candidate is instructed to choose one statement from a selection of 2 or more. For example in an ipsative test, a question might ask a candidate to choose whether they are more hard working or creative. In this case the candidate cannot make themselves look good on both of the statements, it therefore can be said that this method can increase the reliability of certain tests and give the assessor a greater profile of the candidate’s personality. Disadvantages to Psychometric Testing In many cases, psychometric tests and questionnaires have been put together by people with little background in psychometrics and they may have very little actual utility and value for the purposes for which they are marketed. Although British Psychological Society (BPS) has a standard qualification system, it is not unusual for tests to be used by people who are not adequately trained to score them. Also just because a person attends a recognized training course it cannot be guaranteed that they will use tests and questionnaires correctly since some instruments, particularly personality questionnaires, require considerable experience and the possibility of poor interpretation of results is ever-present. Another disadvantage of psychometric testing is the use of personality questionnaires to assess an individual’s ability or skill in a particular area. For example, if a person scores highly on a test called Leadership, this does not mean that he or she will actually possess a high level of leadership skill, instead it means that the individual has the basic personality characteristics that are commonly found amongst effective leaders and, with sufficient experience and given the development of certain necessary skills, has the potential to become an effective leader. (Team Focus 2004) Cost The costs associated with these tests are often substantial. This implies that employers are unlikely to be using them merely in order to follow a management trend, but because they firmly believe that the tests are useful in recruiting job applicants with the right skills and attributes. According to a recent survey by Incomes Data Services (IDS 2000), the sums involved in testing can be quite substantial. Assuming that employers prefer to administer and interpret the tests themselves, rather than employing external consultants, then the costs will include initial training in test use, since it is necessary to be qualified in order to use tests. Further costs will include start-up kits such as manuals or computer software, and consumables such as question-and-answer booklets for test candidates. (Jenkins 2001) In order to become a trained assessor, a person needs to obtain certification from the British Psychological society (BPA), and requires the completion of two courses, Level A and Level B. The BPS Level A covers the use and interpretation of ability tests. The BPS Level B covers the use and interpretation of personality tests. In general the test companies will often provide courses leading to these qualifications. These courses usually take about five days for each of Level A and Level B. The average cost per trainee is about â‚ ¬1,900 for Level A and about â‚ ¬2,200 for Level B. It is possible to train some employees to be test administrators, rather than test users, although at least one person in the organisation must be a qualified test user if the company is to be permitted to buy tests. Test administrators can brief candidates prior to testing, and hand out and collect test papers, but cannot score tests, except under supervision, nor interpret the results. Source: IDS survey of British companies Training to become a test administrator is often cheaper than becoming a test user and a fee of perhaps â‚ ¬1000 would be charged for a test administrator course. However, it is likely that larger companies would want to have several people qualified to test user standard, as well as more employees qualified to administer the tests. According to Edenborough (2004) the major component of cost is the expense of training company staff to be able to obtain and utilize the tests properly, precise costs of psychometric tests will vary but say; in a recruitment context it is unlikely that the expenses are to be more than a couple of percent of a salary. The benefits concerned are also likely to dwarf such figure. Estimating the cost-benefit of psychometric instruments Companies can examine the effect of a recruitment process on a company’s performance by analyzing how well a candidate performs in the role and therefore how much they add to productivity, and balancing this against the investment in their recruitment. Research across a range of organisations suggests that the amount an employer can save, per employee recruited, per year, is: (Validity of the test) multiplied by (Caliber of those selected) multiplied by (Standard deviation of job performance) Minus (Cost of the selection) divided by (Proportion of applicants selected) This formula, known as the utility equation, may look complex, but it has successfully been used by HR professionals in order to justify the use of psychometric instruments and other objective assessment methods. (McHenry 1990) Calculating the cost benefits of psychometric instruments The utility equation can be used to calculate the financial benefit of using psychometric testing as part of an organisations selection process. An example of this would be a company recruiting a person for a position with a â‚ ¬60,000 salary, is possible to compare the financial benefit achieved by using a recruitment process of unstructured interviews that have a validity of 0.18, compared to using personality questionnaires and ability tests that have a combined validity of 0.60. (See table in Appendix 1) Using the utility equation and a conservative estimate of the extent to which this position will impact on company productivity, it can be predicted that using psychometric tools would increase the organization’s productivity by â‚ ¬8,520 compared to using unstructured interviews. This calculation assumes that the candidate remains in the job for one year; if they remain for three years the productivity increase can be as much as â‚ ¬25,160. Source: McHenry (1990) Current Usage within Industries According to Psychometric Success testing is now used by over 80% of the Fortune 500 companies in the USA and by over 75% of the Times Top 100 companies in the UK. Information technology companies, financial institutions, management consultancies, local authorities, the civil service, police forces, fire services and the armed forces all make extensive use of use psychometric testing. In 2006 a survey identified that well over 2,500 personality questionnaires are available on the market, this number is increasing each year as dozens of new companies appear with their own ‘new’ products. The reasons for test use suggest that the perceived objectivity of tests, their predictive abilities, as well as their ability to filter out unsuitable candidates were important reasons for test use in both the public and private sectors, however according Jenkins (2001) equal opportunities legislation may have also encouraged employers to use tests as part of a drive to fairer selection. There are also a number of studies linking increases in test use to the spread of greater professionalism in the human resource management function, and to multi-national companies imposing standard selection procedures throughout their businesses. It has been estimated that it can cost organisations the equivalent of the whole of the first years costs (salary and any other benefits) to put right a wrong recruitment decision. Research reported in a number of test manuals shows that using good assessments professionally as part of the recruitment process dramatically increases the number of right dec isions you make. In order to establish reasons for organisations use of psychometric testing, it was necessary to look at statistics carried on British organisations, due to the limited availability of published research in Ireland. Surveys carried out by Bevan and Fryatt (1988) and by
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