Ethics in Public Sector

This debate has given a better understanding of the responsibilities of the public sector, and how it should interact and interface with (elected) governments, with citizens, civil society and foreign as well as domestic corporations and private business Institutions. Besides, ethics and ethical principles can help people make better decisions, and help people evaluate the decisions of others (Like public officials). Much of this debate has focused on â€Å"good governance†, broadly speaking.Ethics has also been a part of this debate, in particular the discussion on professional ethics of civil servants, and too lesser extent the professional and arsenal ethics of politicians and elected office holders. Although the ethics of the civil service will be the main focus of this compendium, we are also looking into the ethics of the political sphere. Ethics has long been a controversial area of study in the professions of law, politics, philosophy, theology and public administratio n, and other study areas.Some practitioners, however, will dismiss any study or theory of ethics as not pertinent to their work, preferring instead to rely on laws, personnel manuals and job descriptions to define the limits of public sector responsibilities. That view now seems to be losing ground to the viewpoint that public administrators are no longer, if they ever were, expert technicians simply Implementing the policy decisions of the policy makers. Rather, public administrators exercise substantial discretion (decision-making power) on their own, discretion that affects peoples' lives in direct, lasting, and sometimes profound ways.In addition, there can be reasons to question the legitimacy of the rules and the policy decisions that public administrators are Implementing. Administrators and bureaucrats cannot avoid asking decisions, and in doing so they should attempt to make ethical decisions. Administrators have discretionary powers that go beyond the manuals, orders, Job descriptions and legal framework of their position and duties, and professional ethics will have to come In as guldens, In Dalton to the formal regulations.Administrators should therefore seek a broad and solid understanding of ethical theories and traditions, and look for methods for thinking about the ethical dimensions of their decision-making Thus, for a period of time there was a â€Å"realist† school within political science that eschewed any moral component of decision-making as naive, as a religious imposition or as plain hypocritical. Likewise in economics, the standard view has been on humans as a â€Å"homo economics†, a rational man attempting to pursue his selfish Interests, with little regard for ethics.Many people still believe that ethics Is too weak and too ;nice' to be of real importance in what is regarded as the tough, dirty and unprincipled world of politics. 1 OFF togged a proper understanding of what is going on. Ethics is also sometimes seen as active (telling other people what they should not do), impractical (because it is backed only by conscience), and more likely to catch the believing innocent rather than the deliberate offenders.Ethical issues in political science tend to be complex, ranging from micro-level personal issues to national, comparative and international relations. In politics, issues such as public vs.. Private interests, conflicts of interest, power abuse, and corruption have special salience. However, to prevent misconduct is as complex as the phenomenon of misconduct itself. This introduction will present three main topics.First, it will outline the basis and basics of ethics, secondly it will outline the â€Å"infrastructure† of ethics (what shapes the ethics of individuals) and thirdly it will outline two particular themes; the discussion on conflict of interests and corruption What is Ethics? Ethics refers to principles by which to evaluate behavior as right or wrong, good or bad. Ethics re fers to well based standards of right and wrong, and prescribe what humans ought to do. Ethics are continuous efforts of striving to ensure that people, ND the institutions they shape, live up to the standards that are reasonable and solidly based.It is useful to distinguish between normative and descriptive ethics; normative ethics describes the standards for the rightness and wrongness of acts, whereas It is useful to distinguish between normative and descriptive ethics; normative ethics describes the standards for the rightness and wrongness of acts, whereas descriptive ethics is an empirical investigation of people's moral beliefs. L This introduction is for the most part concerned with normative ethics. The law is one Asia promoter of ethic behavior.The law, however, only seta minimum standard for ethical conduct. Just because an act is legal, does not automatically mean it is ethical (think of the apartheid laws, for instance). Nor is an illegal act necessarily immoral (someti mes it can be Justified to break the law). Moral Philosophy Traditionally, moral philosophy (also known as normative ethics and moral theory) is the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offer an overarching moral principle to which one could appeal in resolving difficult moral sections.There are several strands of ethics, which differs on the basis (or rationale) for their various ethical considerations. The three best known normative theories are virtue ethics, consequentiality (in particular utilitarianism) and deontological ethics (and in particular Kantian). Virtue Ethics Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the agent rather than on the formal rules for or the consequences of actions. The key elements of virtue ethical thinking are The roots of the Western tradition lie in the work of Plato and Aristotle, but virtues re important also in traditions of Chinese moral philosophy.Virtue theory returned to prominence in Western philosophical thought in the twentieth century, and is today one of the three dominant approaches to normative theories. Virtue ethics includes an account of the purpose of human life, or the meaning of life. To Plato and Aristotle, the purpose was to live in harmony with others, and the four Cardinal Virtues were defined as prudence, Justice, fortitude and temperance. The Greek idea of the virtues was later incorporated into Christian moral theology. Proponents of virtue theory sometimes argue that a central feature of a virtue is that it is universally applicable.Consequentiality Consequentiality refers to those moral theories, which hold that the consequences off particular action form the basis for any valid moral Judgment about that action. Thus, from a consequentiality standpoint, a morally right action is one that produces a good outcome, or consequence. Utilitarianism is a specific strand of consequentiality ethics. Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by it s contribution to overall utility, that is, its contribution to happiness or pleasure as summed up among all persons.The more happiness or pleasure for the more people, the better. It is consequentiality because the moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome, and that the ends Justify the means. Utilitarianism can also be characterized as a quantitative and reductionism approach to ethics. 2 Utility – the good to be maximized – has been defined by various thinkers as happiness or pleasure (versus sadness or pain). It has also been defined as the satisfaction of preferences. It may be described as a life stance with happiness or pleasure as ultimate importance.In general use of the term utilitarian often refers to a somewhat narrow economic or pragmatic viewpoint. However, philosophical utilitarianism is much broader than this; for example, some approaches to utilitarianism also consider non-humans (animals and plants) in addition to people. Deontological Eth ics Deontological ethics has also been called â€Å"duty' or â€Å"obligation† based ethics. Deontological believe that ethical rules â€Å"bind you to your duty', and they look at the eighties or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of those actions.Deontological ethics looks at our fidelity to principle and disregards the consequences of a particular act, when determining its moral worth. Kantian (or Kantian ethical theory) is deontological, revolving entirely around duty rather than emotional feelings or end goals. The core concept is â€Å"duty', or what one ought to do in certain situations. Kantian states that truly moral or ethical acts are not based on self-interest or the greatest utility, but on a sense of â€Å"duty' and or the individual and their usefulness for others).Kantian theories are based on the work of the German philosopher Emmanuel Kant (1724 – 1804), to whom the â€Å"categorical impe rative† is a core element. Kant thought that human beings occupy a special place in the world, and that morality can be summed up in one, ultimate commandment of reason, or imperative, from which all duties and obligations derive. A categorical imperative denotes an absolute, unconditional requirement that exerts its authority in all circumstances, both required and Justified as an end in itself.Kant argued against utilitarianism and other moral philosophy of his day, because for example an utilitarian would say that murder is K if it does maximize good for the greatest number of people; and he who is preoccupied with maximizing the positive outcome for himself would see murder as K, or irrelevant. Therefore, Kant argued, these moral systems cannot persuade moral action or be regarded as basis for moral Judgments because they are based on subjective considerations. A deontological moral system was his alternative, a system based on the demands of the categorical imperative.

Describing of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act

1. In two to three paragraphs, describe the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and why it is important to the accounting profession. (15 points) Sarbanes-Oxley Act was created in order to ensure that controls were implemented and monitored by the regulating authority. Congress wanted to make sure that there was a specific standard and guideline for companies to follow in order to prevent fraud at such a large scale. When followed correctly there are controls set in place that are internal which are governed by the managers and checked upon by the Federal regulatory authorities.This act was passed in 2002, prior to then the rules were more relaxed and when the crisis occurred with Enron that was a breaking point for the American people, especially those who lost a lot of money. Needless to say this just made it harder for fraud to occur. There were and still are several grey areas that the players involved exploit.2. Name and briefly describe the five components of COSO’s internal control fram ework. (10 points) The five components of COSO are as follows: a. Control Environment: Basically means that the leaders of the organization set the tone for ethics and enforce them with a code of conduct followed by consequences when not abided by. b. Risk assessment: this just means they check there controls for weaknesses regularly and fix any discrepancies with stronger controls. c. Control activities: These are segregation of duties, account reconciliations, and info processing controls. They are considered internal controls as well that protect the processes in place. d. Information and communication: The internal and external reporting process. The text book stated that it includes technology assessments as well.3. Describe the relationship between the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and COSO. (10 points) COSO is used to check in on the organizations and offer guidelines for them to follow when setting upo their controls. If all five elements are followed then they will not have much to wo rry about when auditing occurs and fraud would be less likely.4. Tom Jackson is a CPA who really likes to go to Las Vegas, play poker, and bet on football games. Tom knows that the accounting profession disapproves of gambling, but because he spends a lot of time studying sports facts and how to win at poker, he feels that he is simply making educated decisions based on facts. He says that this is no different from using accounting information to buy stocks. Use the fraud triangle as a basis to comment on Tom’s gambling activities. (15 points) In this case Tom has all of the elements in place to commit fraud. He has the opportunity because of the nature of his business.He has already decided that gambling excessively is ok because it is a calculated risk. Not realizing he is putting himself in a position where the pressure will come into place when he does lose. Debt is always looked at when being evaluated for sensitive positions that deal with national security or money inv olvement. Even if it is just a public trust clearance that the person is seeking on order to get the position they still will review your credit history at a minimum.

Meteorological Modeling In Klang Valley Region Malaysia Environmental Sciences Essay

It has been widely known that alterations of the land surface from flora country to urban country can well impact the environing meteoric status. Meteorologic theoretical account was used to measure meteoric status for air quality mold and prediction. One of the inputs for the meteoric and air quality theoretical account is land usage and land screen of the terrain. In this survey, we examined the sensitiveness of land usage and land screen on the predicted meteoric conditions. A meteoric simulation utilizing 5th coevals mesoscale theoretical account ( MM5 ) by Penn State/NCAR was used to compare the effects of land usage from two different old ages on meteoric status. The predicted meteoric conditions are so compared with the several monitoring station onsite. Consequences showed improved of surface wind velocity and temperature simulated utilizing improved land usage map. Findingss suggest land usage map should be taking into consideration in historical meteoric Fieldss to entree f uture air quality if the country of survey expects big alterations in land usage form. Keywords: Meteorologic mold ; Land usage ; MM5 ; Urban. Introduction It has been widely known that alterations of the land surface from flora country to urban country can well impact the environing meteoric status. Urbanization of an country could take to alterations of meteoric parametric quantities such as boundary bed deepness, perpendicular diffusivity, wind stableness category, etc. These meteoric parametric quantities played an of import function in most of the air quality theoretical accounts that predicts the concentration at each grid. Harmonizing to Jacobson ( 2002 ) , one of the factors that affect air pollution is the local air current which ensuing from uneven land warming, variable topography and others. In another word, different land usage type may take to uneven land warming, because land screen affects ground temperature, which affects pollutant concentration finally ( Jacobson, 2002 ) . Meteorologic and air quality theoretical accounts require land usage and surface feature that differ by their land usage and land screen forms ( Civ erolo et. at. , 2000 ) . Another survey carried out by Jazcilevich et Al. ( 2002 ) suggested that alterations of the land usage type could impact its environing meteoric status and scattering of air pollutant. Much of the current apprehension of the urban clime and meteoric status in Malaysia resulted from the research on Kuala Lumpur and Petaling Jaya country begins from 1970s ( Sham, 1973a, 1973b, 1979a, 1979b and 1987 ) . These researches focused on the description of the climatology and meteoric facet such as air current and temperature parametric quantities associated with urban heat island. The meteoric facets of the Kuala Lumpur and the environing metropoliss may alter due to the change of land usage and land screen by urbanisation and development of the metropolis. However, no survey had been done to entree the meteoric status of Klang Valley part with current land usage and land screen. The meteoric theoretical account used in this survey was the Fifth Generation Mesoscale Model ( MM5 ) from PSU/NCAR ( Grell et al. , 1994 ) . In this theoretical account the land usage was simulated from the planetary flora dataset from USGS which available at 1 grade, 30 min, 10 min, 5 min, and 30 unsweet declaration. However, the informations were derived from satellite observations over a period 1992-3 and the flora classs were out of day of the month and non relevant to the country of survey. The aim of the survey is to find to the effects of the land usage and land screen alterations on the meteoric mold system. Land usage map of twelvemonth 2000 obtain from the Town and Country Planning Department ( JPBD ) will be used to better 1992-3 USGS land usage dataset. The Modeling System PSU/NCAR Fifth Generation Mesoscale Model ( MM5 ) was selected as the meteoric simulation patterning system in this survey. The MM5 theoretical account is non-hydrostatic with terrain following co-ordinates, multi-scale, capable of interface with existent conditions prognosis theoretical accounts ( Global Circulation Model ) , contains expressed cloud strategies and dirt parameterization. MM5 is widely used by the meteoric community and its end product could be coupled together with the Sparse Matrix Operation Kernel Emission ( SMOKE ) theoretical account and Community Multiscale Air Quality ( CMAQ ) theoretical account to imitate the scattering of the air pollutants that take in considerations of the meteoric Fieldss and emanation beginnings. MRF Planetary Boundary Layer ( PBL ) parameterization strategy was selected in this survey. The 4-dimensional informations assimilation ( FDDA ) option was non used was selected in this survey because the purpose of the survey is to analyze the effects of modified land usage on the theoretical account end product. For inputs of informations, land usage datasets from USGS will be used as the default land usage, and land usage map from Town and Country Planning Department as the improved land usage and NCEP FNL ( Final ) Operational Global Analysis information was used in this survey. Domain Setup Four spheres are used as shown in Figure 1 for this survey. The female parent sphere with the declaration 27km covers the most of the Peninsular Malaysia ; 2nd sphere with the 9km declaration screens Selangor province ; 3rd sphere with 3km declaration screens ; finest sphere with 1km declaration will covers the survey country which is Klang Valley. Figure 1: MM5 domain apparatus. Processing of Land Use and Land Cover In the MM5 mold system, each grid cell was assigned one land usage based on the dominant class in the grid cell. 24 classs of Vegetation type by USGS was used in categorization of land usage in MM5. Each land usage categories consists of six surface parameterization, which includes, reflective power, wet handiness, emissitivity at 9 A µm, raggedness length, thermic inactiveness, and surface heat capacity per unit volume giving together with the MM5 theoretical account. Since Malaysia is a tropical state, summertime values are used. Out of 24 land usage types in the MM5 theoretical account ( Guo and Chen, 1994 ) , 14 classs was used to to the full depict the full sphere ( Figure 2 ) , with 22 % classified as H2O organic structures, 0.4 % as urban country and the largest non water-based class is Irrigated Cropland and Pasture ( 39 % ) in sphere 3 and as for sphere 4, 10 % classified as H2O organic structures, 1 % as urban country and the largest non water-based class besides class is Irrigated Cropland and Pasture ( 37 % ) ( Table 1 ) . Figure 2: USGS land usage dataset sphere 3 and domain 4. Since the Land usage dataset from USGS was generated from the twelvemonth 1992/3 orbiter image, the development of the Klang Valley country for the past 15 old ages decidedly changed the land usage and land screen of the survey country. To better the land usage type, updated land usage map from the Town and Country Planning Department was referred in this survey. The updated land usage map was preprocessed from polygon to gridded land usage map based on the categorization of the 24 USGS land usage classs ( Figure 3 ) .The per centum differences of the land usage between the default land usage and the update land usage are shown in ( Table 1 ) . Table 1: Percentage of landuse class for USGS and JPBD land usage Domain 3 and Domain 4. Land usage codification Land usage class USGS Land usage Domain 3 ( % ) USGS Land usage Domain 4 ( % ) JPBD Land usage Domain 3 ( % ) JPBD Land usage Domain 4 ( % ) 1 Urban and Built -Up Area 0.4 1.0 25.1 40.6 2 Dryland Cropland and Pasture 12.1 17.0 0.0 0.0 3 Irrigated Cropland and Pasture 40.2 37.4 0.0 0.0 4 Mixed Dryland/Irrigated Cropland and Pasture 0.0 0.0 20.4 28.0 5 Cropland/Grassland Mosaic 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 6 Cropland/Woodland Mosaic 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 7 Grassland 0.7 1.7 0.0 0.0 8 Shrubland 3.7 7.6 0.0 0.0 10 Savanna 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 11 Deciduous Broadleaf Forest 13.4 16.5 0.0 0.0 13 Evergreen Broadleaf Forest 2.8 1.1 0.0 0.0 14 Evergreen Needleleaf Forest 0.3 0.5 0.0 0.0 15 Assorted Forest 2.7 5.3 34.4 25.0 16 Water Bodies 22.4 10.3 17.8 6.5 Figure 3: Gridded JPBD land usage in 3km and 1km declaration. An ASCII type of input file was generated based on the reclassified land usage map into specific format. This ASCII file contains column, row, land usage type, latitude, longitude, flora fraction, and H2O fraction ( Figure 4 ) . Figure 4: Example of ASCII format input. The FORTRAN codification named â€Å" replace_lulc.f † is used to replace the land usage type, flora fraction and H2O fraction in the TERRAIN_DOMAINx file based on the co-ordinates of the reclassified grid cells and the several land usage type, and other parametric quantities provided in the ASCII file. The FORTRAN codification is compiled utilizing run book â€Å" run.replace † which besides determines the input and end product files to treat, and parametric quantities to be updated ( Figure 5 ) . Figure 5: Example of run.replace book. MM5 Simulation Results MM5 simulation was performed from 1st July 2005 ( 18:00 ) to 3rd July 2005 ( 17:00 ) with entire simulation clip 48 hours utilizing USGS flora dataset for 27km, 9km, 3km and 1km spheres as base instance. The 3km and 1km sphere will be compared with the end product of MM5 simulation using JPBD land usage dataset during for same period. All the physical options used were indistinguishable for both simulations. Observation from the Continuous Air Quality Monitoring ( CAQM ) station from Alam Sekitar Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. ( ASMA ) and Malayan Meteorological Department ( MMD ) was used to formalize MM5 public presentation from the both USGS and improved land usage dataset. Three CAQM site was selected to formalize the MM5 public presentation, which are the monitoring station in Klang and Shah Alam that maintained by ASMA and supervising station in Subang that operated by MMD. The simulations that utilized USGS land usage dataset showed overestimate of the air current velocity and produces sudden extremum at certain hr in the simulation. The improved land usage dataset utilizing JPBD land usage informations reduces the air current velocity and frequence of the sudden extremum, yet still over estimated the overall air current velocity compared to the observation informations ( Figure 6 ) . However, the improved land usage dataset utilizing JPBD do increase the correlativity between the ascertained air current velocity and simulated air currents velocity from all CAQM site ( Table 2 ) . The lowered air current velocity due to the improved land usage informations set could take to increased stableness and decreased perpendicular commixture. This could increase the air pollution concentration in certain country. The temperature profile simulated by both utilizing USGS and JPBD land usage dataset able to imitate the afternoon temperature near surface when comparison with the onsite observation temperature informations. However, both USGS and JPBD land usage dataset tends to overrate the temperature near surface during the dark ( Figure 7 ) . The correlativity between ascertained temperature and fake temperature somewhat increases when use JPBD land usage dataset in the simulation for the all monitoring site ( Table 2 ) . The consequences suggest that improved land usage dataset utilizing JPBD land usage dataset could better the overall simulation consequence ( Table 2 ) . The alterations of the meteoric parametric quantities could impact scattering of air pollutant, energy demand that could impact anthropogenetic emanations. The alterations of the MM5 end product could besides impact the computation of the air pollution patterning package such as CMAQ. Figure 6: Time series comparing of windspeed at 1km sphere for Shah Alam. Figure 7: Time series comparing of 1.5m temperature at 1km sphere for Shah Alam. Figure 8: Correlation between observed and predicted informations at Shah Alam. Table 2: Summary of correlativity between observed and predicted informations for all the location. Parameter Sphere Monitoring Station Klang, ASMA Shah Alam, ASMA Subang, MMD Wind speed 10m Domain 3 USGS 0.034 0.082 0.176 Domain 3 JPBD 0.311 0.318 0.214 Domain 4 USGS 0.015 0.083 0.169 Domain 4 JPBD 0.277 0.273 0.254 Temperature 1.5m Domain 3 USGS 0.673 0.672 0.410 Domain 3 JPBD 0.774 0.788 0.537 Domain 4 USGS 0.666 0.657 0.411 Domain 4 JPBD 0.790 0.759 0.544 Discussion The land usage is merely one of many factors that take in consideration by the meteoric mold system. The consequences showed betterment of the fake air current velocity and temperature near surface. The public presentation of the MM5 on simulation could be improved by modifying the MM5 physical options and strategies depending on the declaration and location of the survey country. Since the land usage and land screen alterations affects the close surface meteorological, it should be included as one of the cardinal factors in the air pollution patterning particularly future air quality scenario. The alterations of the temperature that lead by land usage could increase downwind, and potentially affects the air quality simulation. The alterations of the air current velocity besides affect the dispersion of air pollutants and blending in the ambiance, alterations of the air pollutant concentration are expected. Changing in the land usage and land screen forms due to the urban conurbation, altering of agricultural forms, forestation and deforestation are expected to affects to landscape. The change of landscape will take to alterations in population, energy ingestion, anthropogenetic and biogenic emanations. The consequences suggested that land usage should be taken into consideration when utilizing air quality calculating theoretical account to predicts and measure the air quality. Recognition The writers thank the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOSTI ) Malaysia for back uping this research, under undertaking no. 04-01-04-SF0674. We besides thank Department of Environment ( DOE ) Malaysia, Malaysian Meteorological Department ( MMD ) and Town and Planning Department ( JPBD ) Malaysia for informations providing. The Positions expressed by the authours do non neccesarily reflect those of the bureau.

Legal Aspects of Hospitality Managment Term Paper

Legal Aspects of Hospitality Managment - Term Paper Example The safety regulations require the employees handling food to observe personal hygiene and use clean uniform and other attires when handling food. In addition, all food handlers are required to undergo medical check-up on a regular basis in order to minimize the spread of contagious diseases such as tuberculosis and diarrhea. The restaurant managers are required to maintain clean and safe environment and premises in order to reduce liabilities that business may incur through injuries to visitors while in the premise (Tansey and Rajotte 79). If the restaurant management complies with these safety requirements, clients will get motivated and encouraged to revisit the restaurant in the future. 2. Improved workers efficiency Safety standards require restaurant owners to ensure secure and clean environment of the business. Another requirement is better working environment for employees and the use of recommended food handling facilities (Brown 785). Regarding the safety of the workers, th e law protects employees against discrimination, poor working environment, and unfair dismissal from work, inadequate pay including overtime allowances, leave and other allowances. If the business is able to comply with these requirements it will motivate employees and increase their productivity (Jha and Elgar 51). Also, employees feel motivated because of better pay, appropriate equipment and excellent working atmosphere and they are able to identify with business. 3. Reduction of unhealthy competition When establishing a restaurant the investor must ensure compliance with all legal requirements relating to safety of the customers, workers and the environment (Vogel 116). The law requires the restaurants to ensure the food is... This paper approves that food safety rules describe the hygiene conditions for handling food and the environment surrounding the food business. The process involved when interacting with food safety rules is usually cumbersome and cost intensive. The process of registering business is generally tedious and time consuming. Some businesses are unable to meet the safety regulations requirements hence they opt out of business. This closure of business results to significant loss of business revenue during the closure period. This essay makes a conclusion that the future of the restaurant business lies on the level of compliance of the business with safety regulations relating to customer, employees and the environmental protection. The safety standards have stringent requirements for the establishment and management of the restaurants. Adherence to these safety measures will promote business growth by increasing customer satisfaction and loyalty. Also, this will increase the efficiency of business through the use of recommended food handling equipments, protection of environment against improper waste disposal and will result to motivation of employees as a result of better terms of work. However, many potential investors may not comply with these standards hence reducing the potential for investment. In addition, the high cost of business compliance with safety regulations will reduce business revenue hence decrease employment opportunities.

Should life imprisonment without the possibility of parole replace the Research Paper

Should life imprisonment without the possibility of parole replace the death penalty in California - Research Paper Example Proponents of the Death penalty believe that people fear death and if death is the punishment for killing someone, they would refrain from it. They believe that in order to have a just system in place where the victim’s family is put to ease it is important to have an eye for eye approach. The criminal is guilty of taking someone’s life so he is liable to give up his. If the person is mentally unstable to have done so it makes him more dangerous to the society’s well-being and putting him to death is the only way to ensure such crimes do not take place through his hands again. However, opponents of the death penalty have a strong viewpoint as well. They believe that every life is precious and shouldn’t be given up on. If taking a life is a crime, no one should be allowed to do it, including the government. If a criminal is guilty committing of capital offense he should subjected to punishments that take away his life figuratively, not literally. Also, many believe that taking away a criminal’s life is too easy on him, the real punishment would be him leading a hard life that prologs his sufferings for the crime he committed. Executing a death penalty is costly for the governments as such cases are tried for a long time resulting in jury expenditures and security arrangements for the courts. Lastly and most importantly, it is morally wrong to take a life to stop crimes when the same purpose can be achieved through other means effectively like life without parole. The enforcement of death penalty is highly dependent on the society’s co nstruct and the public opinion (Wood 63). If a society holds strong political and ideological interest, it is likely that capital offenses are awarded strict punishments like death penalty to keep up the societal balance and sanctity of its socio-political ideology. Secondly, public opinion is a determinant of having the death penalty in place. Where many people have a humanitarian approach with a soft spot for life in general, whether a convict’s or a victim’s, many people still believe that the death penalty is the only way to keep crimes at their minimal and bring relief to the victims’ family. In the developing world, death penalty is seen to be an active form of justice, but the developed countries also have a hard time putting it to an end. As far as the US is concerned, 31 states out of 52 states in the U.S. still practice the death penalty, including California. In 2006, the District Court judge declared that the death penalty was against the eighth amen dment of the United States constitution that states that the federal government is liable to refrain from cruel punishments including torture and unusual punishments. The then governor of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger, took this declaration

HCL gas detection by using manual air sampling pump Lab Report

HCL gas detection by using manual air sampling pump - Lab Report Example This, thus imply that, the Gas Detection Tubes were adopted in testing of more than 130 hazardous gases and vapors. Some of The such gases include Ammonia, Chlorine, Carbon monoxide, Bromonzene, formaldehyde, Hydrogen sulfide, Nitrous fumes, Hydrogen peroxide, Hexane, Hydrogen chloride, Sulfur dioxide, Nitrogen dioxide, phosphine among others (Bamberger, 1988). The detector tubes are the flame sealed glass made tubes that contain treated adsorbent granules that often react specific compounds thereby causing the given adsorbent to change its color. When in use, a sample is first collected through the process of attaching the detector tube onto some special bellows-type pump, which takes up a given known volume of air during each stroke. This is followed by measuring the length of the adsorbent bed, which would have undergone the color change. In this method, a gas sample is pulled through the glass tube with a reagent and a reaction between the solid reagent and the gas forming a char acteristic color that is quite irritating odor. Although not considered as a combustible gas, it may react and form combustible compounds when it is in contact with hydrogen cyanide and alcohol or with aluminum-titanium alloys. Dissolving Hydrogen Chloride gas in water yields a strong highly corrosive acid, HCL. It is for this reason that HCl gas is a strong irritant to the nose, eyes, and upper respiratory tract. HCL levels of 35 ppm can cause irritation to the throat even within a very short period of time. The manual sampling pump is a springless design for accurate 50 and 100 cc sample volumes pump. The flow finish indicator signals the stroke completion and build in tube tip breaker for a clean break every time. The hand operated precision piston works with the RAE System gas detection tubes (Bamberger, 1988). The features flow –finish indicator is used to signal stroke completion,

Design a Pay for Performance Incentive Awards Program Assignment

Design a Pay for Performance Incentive Awards Program - Assignment Example program that will run for five years within the organization seeks to maximize productivity besides developing an appropriate mindset among the employees. This way, the program is not only a short-term project but also a long-term motivational project. As discussed, the program will incorporate all the employees within the company including the top-level managers to the junior employees. In order to implement the program appropriately, the implementation will therefore vary depending on the employees. Just as the title suggests, the program seeks to reward productivity. Each level of employee has specific goals that the program will strive to achieve. In the top-level management for example, the program seeks to enhance creativity, intuition and management prowess. In middle level management, the program seeks to enhance both obedience and problem solving skills while in the junior employees of the organization the program seeks to enhance both competition and hard work. This way, the program enhances the overall productivity of the entire organization. Preliminarily, the program will ensure that all the employees within the organization are capable of undertaking their different roles. This complements the objective of the program since it seeks to reward productivity. The employees must therefore meet the qualifications set for their different roles a feature that ensures that they are capable of undertaking their roles within the organization. Furthermore, qualifications ensure that the employees are capable of meeting the obligations of their respective positions besides enhancing the ease of management. Top-level management must have appropriate qualifications. Managers make decisions daily operations within the organization through the formulation and implementation of policies. As such, they must have both the appropriate education and professional training to enable them make such appropriate decisions. The performance reward program will acknowledge the

Consumer Relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Consumer Relationship - Essay Example Consumer relationship management is one area of organizations that calls for proper intelligence and understanding to achieve. Most organizations look into satisfying the needs of their customers without first understanding themselves. By giving so much focus to consumer satisfaction and ignoring the organization itself, in the long run even the customers themselves hardly get satisfied (Liveris 2011, p. 17). This paper critically analyzes the contribution of organizational/product- consumer relationship trends in the global beer industry by taking into consideration the demands of consumer relationships, theories around consumer relationships and the techniques that have been employed by organizations so as to achieve customer relationships. In purchasing goods and services, consumers are always faced with dilemmas before arriving at the decision to buy some specific products or services. In the beer industry, one may ask such question as, why do I need to buy â€Å"Heineken† but not â€Å"castle lager† for instance. Well, depending with the individual, different factors such as price, quality and satisfaction will start ringing in their minds. To others, however, the producer of the product matters a lot. It is common that people tend to choose products from well established organizations as opposed to the upcoming organizations. Described below is the process that most consumers undergo before arriving at the decision to purchase certain products: What triggers the mind of any individual to buy a certain product is the need to solve a certain need or problem that such a consumer may be facing. Here, the consumer tends to believe that by purchasing specific products, their problems will be solved. Most organizations start influencing the customer decision making from this point. Companies try to put to customers that those customers actually have problems and those problems can only be  solved with products from such organizations. A good example is alcohol consumption.  

CH Energy Main Competitor Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 10000 words

CH Energy Main Competitor - Research Paper Example CH energy operates mainly in the United States of America which is the world's largest economy with an approximate per-capita GDP of about $46,900. It is also militarily and technologically the most powerful nation in the world. It is a purely market-oriented economy with most of the important strategic business decisions taken by individuals or the board of companies. The government buys goods and services from the private sector. The problems in this economy are inadequate investments towards economic infrastructures, a very high medical cost, trade and budget deficits apart from income stagnation in the economic groups with lower income. The GDP with regards to the purchasing power parity is about $ 14.26 trillion as of 2008. The GDP as per real growth rate is 1.1% as of 2008. The per capita GDP is about $ 46,900 as of 2008. In the total figure of GDP agriculture contributes about 1.2%, the industry contributes 19.2% and the services sector contributes about 79.6% towards the GDP. All this implies a rosy scenario for CH energy as the figures show that the country is predominately industry based which would result in a huge demand for power and related services. The country also offers a 154.3 million strong workforce. The country has a public debt of about 60.8% of the GDP as of 2007. The central bank discount rate is 0.5% as of 2009. The USA has a $1,624 trillion stock of money. The country has a wide range of industries ranging from consumer goods, aerospace, motor vehicles, steel, telecommunications, food processing, petroleum, and other industries. The country produces 4167 trillion kWh units of electricity and consumes about 3892 trillion kWh of power annually as of 2007. The USA exports about 20.14 billion units of electricity and imports only 51.4 billion kWh units of electricity.

Someone Who Inspires Me Essay Example for Free

Someone Who Inspires Me Essay There are so many people who have influenced my life, but the person that stands out the most is my grandmother. I call her my Nee because I couldn’t say â€Å"Grandma† when I started talking. She always is a happy person every time I see her; she always tries to make herself a better person no matter what. I look up to her every day, and I want to grow up and be respected like she is. She has influenced me by her actions to respect elders, respect my parents, and the most important one is to always have a smile on my face even when I’m down. Nee always tells me to respect my elders. She always leaves an impression to my eyes for the reason that she still respects her elders to this day. I can remember from day one that she always tells me to use my manners no matter who it is. I would always get in trouble for not saying â€Å"Yes Ma’am†, â€Å"No Sir†, â€Å"Please and Thank You†. When we go out in public she always sees someone she knows, and I will always catch her saying those words. Even if they aren’t older than her, she still uses her manners. I know she always reminds me to have respect because she will always compliment kids that use manners towards her. By her telling me that she loves and respects it when kids use manners, then I know the elders love and respect it when I use my manners. I get complimented all the time for having such great manners and I will always tell everyone that it’s all because of my grandmother. Respecting my parents is very important to her also. She always would tell me when I went over to her house to never be rude to my parents. They are the reason I am here today, and have such a fantastic life. I will ever forget the day when I had to go clean her house, because at a family outing I yelled at my parents for a dumb reason, and my grandma got mad. She told me that I had to come over for the weekend and she was going to teach me a valuable lesson about respecting my parents. I had to clean all the floors and windows, and let me tell you that was not enjoyable. I learned my lesson real quick and I would never yell at my parents again. My grandmother taught me that I am disobeying God by yelling at my parents. Nee always has a smile on her face no matter what her day been like. She is always a happy person and just brings a happy mood to the room. I look up to that greatly because I want to be happy all the time, and I want people to want to be around me. She would always tell me that nobody likes being around sad and gloomy people since it will just make them in that mood also. One weekend I was very cheerless and I walked into the room that had a joyful atmosphere, and then it just dropped to pure unhappiness. I could hear Nee inside my head telling me â€Å"People don’t like to be around others who are not cheerful†, and right then I changed my mood. I didn’t want to make those happy people all gloomy because I was; I wanted them to want to be around me. She would also tell me that going to church and worshiping The Lord will forever make you in such a joyful mood. I have gone to church since I was little, and every Sunday when I leave, I always have a smile on my face. As Nee continues to teach me respect and how to become a better person, her influence on me will just keep increasing significantly. Her teaching me to respect my elders no matter how old I am shows me that I still have to use my manner when I am an elder; because that’s how I want to be treated by younger people. She always will tell me that I need to respect my parents no matter what the situation is and to view the fact that one day they won’t be here and I’m going to be a parent. Last but not least, I always need to remember to have a smile on my face. I will always hear Nee tell me that nobody wants to be around depressing people, so I better turn that frown upside down. By Nee teaching me to respect elders, respect my parents, and always keep a smile on my face, I have no doubt that I will be an influence on someone else in the future.

Definition and determinants of price elasticity

Definition and determinants of price elasticity Definition of price elasticity (PES) to supply refers to a measurement of relationship between change in quantity supplied and a change in price. There is a few determinants that affects the outcome of the PES. One of the determinants is time period. Supply will be more elastic when time given to a company to change its adjustment is more. In short run, the time given to firms and companies are too short to adjust or change and adapt. For example, Sammys burger face a shortage of beef meat as raw material. It is inelastic if the time period is limited to a few hours only. The price of the burger might increase but the there is simple no other methods to help Sammy. In long run, time given to firms and producers are long enough to adjust their firm size and prepare for firms to enter or leave. In this way, Sammy would have enough time to search for alternate way for new resources. Another determinant is resource substitution possibilities, which means some goods or product that can only be produced or made by using special technique or limited resources. These products have a very low elasticity of supply or maybe zero. However goods which are commonly produced that could be simply found have a relatively high elasticity of supply. Example, Louis Vuitton handbags are all handmade from genuine leather, hence there are less products that may substitute it. The PES of Louis Vuitton is much more inelastic. Question 2B Price Businesses can use the concept price elasticity to decide their pricing strategy by determining whether the good to be sold is inelastic, elastic, unitary, perfectly inelastic, and perfectly elastic. If the price elasticity is inelastic it shows that the percentage change in quantity demanded is less than the percentage change in price. For example, good A is given a discount of 10%, but quantity demanded only increased slightly by a 3%, thus is will be a smarter way to gain more profit by increasing the price instead of decreasing and only quantity demanded will only decrease slightly. Diagram 2.1 shows the demand curve of this case. 10% Quantity demanded D Diagram 2.1- Inelastic Demand 4% Furthermore, when the demand of a certain good is elastic it shows a scenario which the percentage change in quantity demanded is larger than the percentage change in price. For example, good B is an inelastic good, hence giving discounts or decreasing the price will attract more customers, thus increasing the total revenue of the business. Diagram 2.2 shows the demand curve of good B decreasing the price by 10% and earning 20% more quantity demanded. Price 10% D 20% Quantity demanded Diagram 2.2- Elastic Demand Thirdly, if demand of a good is unitary elastic, which the percentage change in quantity demanded equals to the percentage change in price. Any rise in price will be exactly offset by a fall in quantity, leaving the total revenue unchanged. In Diagram 2.3, it shows that when given a 10% discount, quantity demanded will increase by 10%; the total revenue earned is the same as before discount. Therefore, producer should decrease the price of product, manufacturing less goods saving more time and man power and redirecting it to another productive product. Price 10% D Quantity demanded Diagram 2.3-Unitary Elastic 10% When demand is perfectly inelastic, the quantity demanded will not change as the price change. Consumers will not response to any change in price at all. In diagram 2.4, it shows that when price decrease by 10%; no changes are to be seen. Hence if producers increase the price of the product, quantity demanded will not be affected. Price D 10% Quantity demanded Diagram 2.4- Perfectly Inelastic Price Last but not least is perfectly elastic demand, where only slight percentage change in price will cause an infinite percentage change in quantity demanded. This means that consumers have a great response to a change in price. Hence, producers should remain the price or follow the market value and not simply changing the price because a small change can bring an infinite change in quantity demanded. D Quantity demanded Diagram 2.5- Perfectly elastic Question 3A Supply is the production of a certain good or product by suppliers or future suppliers for the market a variation of price at a certain time period. From the law of supply, if the price of a certain good increase, so will the quantity supplied of the good. A supply curve is a graph that shows quantity of goods that producers will supply according to the price. The graph will always sloped upwards to the right side because quantity supply is bigger at a dearer price. Diagram 3.1 shows how a supply curve is. Price Quantity supplied Diagram 3.1 S0 Price There are a few reasons supply of a product will increase. If there is an increase in supply, the supply curve will shift rightwards. Diagram 3.2 shows a shift in the supply curve from S0 to S1. S1 Diagram 3.2 Quantity supplied Firstly, a decrease or increase in the cost of making a good will determine the supply. In this case, cost of raw material or packaging too will affect the cost price. If cost of raw material for a certain good drop, suppliers will tend to produce more good and hence the supply will increase. Example, the cost of flour drops and results to an increase supply of bread. The drop in cost of flour the raw material of bread will lower down the cost of production thus suppliers will be able to produce more. Hence, the supply increases. Secondly, the improvement in technology will affect the supply of a certain good. Improvement in technology is able to decrease the cost of production and increase productivity of a certain good, thus resulting in an increase in supply of good at every price level. For example, the development in robotic arms and computers enabled car manufacturers to produce cars in a faster pace yet with a promising product. Hence, car manufacturers can cut cost at man power and also costly mistakes. Supply will increase as the technology continues to develop. Last but not least, is the price of substitute goods and competitive goods that may affect the supply of a good. Producing these goods requires similarly the same raw material. Hence, producers will choose to concentrate on the product which is more profitable and a better demand rate. Example, nukia N99 is more popular compared to nukia M99, thus producers will try to produce more nukia N99 which is more profitable than nukia M99. Hence supply of nukia N99 will increase. Question 3B Economists are saying that price floor and price ceilings can control the distribution of scarce good to those consumers who value them most highly. Price floor also know as minimum price is set above the equilibrium price to take effect. By doing so, goods have to be sold at a minimum price; hence minimum profits are earned by suppliers. On the other hand, price ceiling or the maximum price is set below the equilibrium price to take effect, lowering the price will attract consumers. Diagram 3.3 shows the price floor and Diagram 3.4 shows the price ceiling. Price S e Pe D Piece ceiling (Max. price) Diagram 3.3 Price Ceiling Quantity Demand Price D S Quantity Demand Piece Floor (Min. price) e Pe Diagram 3.4- Price Floor S : Supply curve D : Demand curve Pe : Price Equilibrium e : Equilibrium point Rationing function of price is the increase or decrease in price to clear the market of any shortage or surplus, while the resource allocation defines as an amount of resource given to a party for a specific purpose. The price floor and price ceiling are said to be stifle the rationing function of prices and distort resource allocation because they are made by the government to make sure suppliers gain profit. But this may result in surplus between demand and supply. As an example, good A is set at a price floor of $20 which is $5 more than the price at equilibrium. Some consumers are willing and able to buy the product at a higher price, and producers will continue supply good A. producers may raise the price of good A, but in return less consumer will buy it. This may result a surplus in the market. Other than that it also results distort resource allocation because not all products are able to be sell out. S: Supply curve D: Demand curve Pe: Price Equilibrium S Price of good A surplus $20 Pe D Quantity demand of good A Furthermore, once a price ceiling is put onto a good by the government, a shortage will happen between the supply and the demand of the product which eventually causes stifle of rationing function of prices and distorts the resource allocation. For example, salts have a price ceiling of $3 per packet, which is determined by the government. In other words, consumers are able to buy salt at a much cheaper price. But suppliers will not be able to make a better profit; hence supply will be limited by producers. This results to a shortage of salt in the market. Distort resource allocation occurs, thus not all consumers are able to buy salt because of the stocks are limited. Price of salt (per packet) S: Supply curve D: Demand curve Pe: Price Equilibrium Quantity of sugar (package) S Shortage Pe $3 D Question 5A The definition of demand can be defined as quantities of a good or service that people are ready and willing to buy at various prices within some given time period, other factor besides price held constant, ceteris paribus. Price of Cintan First of all, a change in demand will cause the demand curve to shift rightwards. Other than the price of the good itself, there are a few other determinants that leads to a shift in the curve. Some of the determinants are price of substitute or complementary good, size of a household income, taste and fashion, weather condition, and etc. the curve will shift rightwards if there is an increase in demand and vice versa. Example, a drop in the price of Maggie instant noodle which is the substitute of Cintan instant noodle drops from $3 to $2. In this case, the demand of Cintan will drop, hence the demand curve of Cintan will shift leftwards. This is because consumers will be attracted by the cheaper good and not the dearer one. According to the law of demand, as the price of a good decrease, the quantity demanded of the good rises and vice versa, ceteris paribus. Diagram 5.1 shows the demand curve of Cintan instant noodle shift from D0 to D1 when a there is a decrease in demand. D1 D0 Diagram 5.1 Quantity Demanded On the other hand, a change in quantity demanded is shown as a movement along the demand curve. The one and only factor which can results a change in quantity demanded is the price of the good itself. When the price decreases, the quantity demanded will increase and vice versa, ceteris paribus. For example, in Diagram 5.2 an upward movement from A to B along the demand curve due to an increase in price of cheese from $5 to $8. The quantity demanded of cheese decreases from Qd0 to QD1 according to law of demand. Price of cheese($) 8 B 5 A Diagram 5.2 D Qd1 Qd0 Quantity demanded of cheese D: Demand curve A: point A B: point B Qd: Quantity demanded Question 5B Income elasticity of demand (YED) shows the proportionate  change  in the  demand  for a good in  response  to a change in households income. YED can also be explained as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in households income. Below is the way YED is written down in formula form: The percentage change in quantity demanded YED = The percentage change in households income There are several degrees affecting the YED. First degree of all is the positive YED. The outcome of the YED is a positive outcome, which means that demand will rise as income rise too. Positive YED can be further broken down into two categories, income elastic and income inelastic. Income elastic is said to be income elastic when the outcome is greater than 0 but lesser than 1 (0< YED 1) it is said to be income inelastic. This is because the percentage change in quantity demanded differs by a large percentage over the percentage change in households income. The good is known as luxury, example of luxury goods are branded items, sport cars, and branded clothes. Second degree of YED is negative YED, which is a negative outcome of YED value (YED< 0). In this case, when demand falls, income rises. Goods under this degree are known as inferior good. Example of inferior goods are second-hand items, replica items, and low class good. Last but not least is when YED equals exactly to zero (YED = 0 ). This only occurs when the quantity demanded does not change as the income changes. All the goods under this degree are necessity. Basic needs such as rice and salt are utilized on daily life, hence income will not affect the demand. Question 6A Diagram 6.1 Consumer surplus is the difference between total amount that consumers are willing and able to pay for a good or service and the total amount that they actually pay. Producer surplus is the difference between what producers are willing and able to supply a god for and the price they actually receive. The level of producer surplus is shown by the area above the curve and below the market price. Price of good Consumer Surplus S: Supply curve D: Demand curve Pe: Price equilibrium Q: Quantity D S Pe Quantity of good Producer Surplus Consumer surplus shows the highest price customers are willing to pay and the market price that they are actually paying for. Consumer surplus tells us that customers gets the benefit from paying lesser than the actual price. The area under the demand curve and above the price equilibrium represents the consumers surplus. For example. A consumer whom is willing to pay $20 for Good A but the actual price for Good A is only $5 to have it. Hence the consumer surplus is $5 which is the value that is paid lesser than what he is willing to pay. Other than that, the area above the supply curve and under the price equilibrium represents the producers surplus. For example, producers are willing to sell their product shoe at a price of $100 but instead the market paid them $200. Hence, the producers received $100 more than they are willing to take, $100 is the producers surplus. (Geoff Riley, Eton College, September 2006, http://tutor2u.net/economics/revision-notes/a2-micro-consumer-producer-surplus.html .) Question 6B Scarcity, choice and opportunity cost are the three basic concepts of economics. Scarcity is a case where human needs are in excess compared to resources available. Choice is the time where humans are force to make a choice by scarcity between two or more choices. But for every choice humans make, another will be sacrificed, and the sacrificed choice are known as opportunity costs. The above concepts are best explained by a production possibility frontier graph (PPH) that shows various maximum combination of two outputs that the economy produce. A few assumptions are set on the PPF graph- only two products produced, efficient production, fixes production, and fixed technology. Moreover, any points outside the reach of the PPF is unattainable points and the point which lies beneath the PPF is possible to achieve and is also known as attainable points but usually not desirable, inefficient points. While points on the curve are possible outputs that is known as efficient points. E B A 10 9 C 8 5 D 2 4 3 1 0 Diagram 6.1 Combinations Television Radios A 0 10 B 1 9 C 2 8 D 3 5 E 4 0 Table 6.1 In this case, the society faces a scarce resource to produce televisions and radios. Therefore, the society will have to make a choice to produce which good more or less. If combination A is chosen, 10 radios will be produced while none for television. 4 television are sacrificed or taken as opportunity cost. The following combinations happens as the table shown above.

Contract Law Legal Advice Example

Contract Law Legal Advice Example Legal Advice 1. The shop is relying on an exemption clause.   Customer A is likely to have a remedy against the shop under schedule 3 of the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations (1999) which disallows a business to exclude a consumer’s legal rights.   In this instance, customer A may seek provision under the Sale of Goods Act 1979 s 14 (2) (goods must be of satisfactory quality) as amended by the Sale of Goods Act 1994 if the shop does not assist her. 2.   Customer B may be able to rely on undue influence, the main case being National Westminster Bank v Morgan where it was held the claimant must not suffer from manifest disadvantage.   Undue influence simply means unfair pressure on a party when forming a contract.   The shop may argue there was no special relationship between the parties, in which case it is for customer B to prove this (Williams v Bayley).   Following the decision in Lloyds Bank v Bundy, the question may be whether there was ‘inequality of bargaining strength’ the shop acted as an agency for the HP financers.   In this case, the creditor (financers) may be unable to enforce the contract against customer B (Kingsnorth Trust v Bell) if customer B can successfully plea undue influence then the contract may be rendered voidable (set aside). 3.   In relation to customer C, she may be able to rely on the Sale of Goods Act 1979 as amended by the Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994, which states under s.13, that the goods must be as described (see: Beale v Taylor).   There must be a reliance on the description of goods as decided in: Grant v Australian Knitting Mills Ltd, but in this instance the customer is entitled to a remedy against the shop. 4.   Customer D is seeking to bring a complaint for fraudulent misrepresentation under the Misrepresentation Act 1967.   Stating that the childminders were qualified is a false statement of fact (Bisset v Wilkinson).   Defined in Derry v Peek, fraudulent misrepresentation is a statement where there are several factors, one of which is a ‘reckless statement made without caring whether it was true or not’.   In this instance, the shop is liable for all damages, including all loss, to the customer (Smith New Court Securities v Scrimgeour Vickers).   5. Neighbours are seeking to complain over a private nuisance. It can be defined as: â€Å"continuous, unlawful and indirect interference with a person’s enjoyment of land†Ã‚   Balance must be stuck between conflicting interests, namely the shop needing its deliveries and the neighbours’ peace in the morning.   Has the duration being continuous? (Bolton v Stone)   The shop being aware of the problem, if it fails to address the issue, then it may be liable for nuisance (Leakey v National Trust). 6.   The shop has a duty of care under the Occupier’s Liability Act 1957, s 2 (1) towards visitors, in this case invitees to the shop (s. 1 (2)).   The shop must take ‘reasonable steps to inform a visitor that an area is out of bounds.   It did so in this case, with the notice on the door.  Ã‚   Under s. 2 (3) (a) of the OLA 1957, the shop must be prepared for children to be less careful than an adult.   However, the shop is entitled to be assured that the behaviour of a young child should be supervised by an adult (Phipps v Rochester Corporation).   Therefore, this part of the claim may fail since the mother did not keep her child under supervision. In relation to her claim for nervous shock, there is a 3 stage test as outlined in Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police, namely: a). Was the mother in sufficient proximate time and space to the incident?   b) There must be close ties of love and affection to the victim c) The claimant must have seen or heard the incident or its immediate aftermath.   As all these answers are in the affirmative, then it is likely this part of the claim may be successful against the store. 7.   The shop is liable for injury to F under the Employer’s Liability Act 1969, s1. F is no longer required to pursue the manufacturer as the shop has informed her, although she may do so if she wishes.   F (employee) must show: a) That the defect in the equipment caused the accident and b) That the defect was due to a fault in the manufacture. In this part, the employer is liable directly to F. With F’s claims for bullying, the shop is liable under vicarious liability, since this is a tort by an employee acting in the course of their employment.   A noted case for this was outlined in Jones v Tower Boot Co 8.   An advertisement is an invitation to treat, where the customer makes an offer to buy (Partridge v Crittenden).   There may only be revocation of an offer where response is made to an invitation to treat (Payne v Cave).   In this case the customer accepted the terms of the offer and is entitled to the goods as stated (Lefkowitz v Great Minneapolis Surplus Stores).   9. The shop is liable under the Consumer Protection Act 1987.   The fact that H’s sister did not make the contract is irrelevant as the case of Stennett v Hancock illustrated that a duty of care is owed to a person receiving presents from the original buyer (H). Under s. 2 (1) of the CPA 1987, the supplier (shop) is liable, since the customer cannot identify or contact the manufacturer.   10.   The shop owes K a duty of care as outlined in the ‘neighbour’ principle of Donoghue v Stevenson.   To prove negligence, there must have been a duty, that duty was breached and causation. Therefore, the shop is negligent in this case.   Also, K may have a claim under the Consumer Protection Act 1987 which places strict liability on anyone in the distribution food chain where a consumer suffers harm. 11.   This contract is frustrated.   In the case of Taylor v Caldwell, it was determined that where a contract depends on a given thing (in this case 100 copper saucepans), and there is impossibility of performance of the contract, then the performance should be excused.   Both parties are discharged from further performance in this case as the supplier cannot supply the order requested. 12.   Part payment of a debt can never be satisfaction for the whole payment as outlined in Pinnel’s Case (1602).   This has since been confirmed in Foakes v Beer and Re Selectmove.   Further, if the money is unable to be recovered at a later date, the doctrine of promissory estoppel applies where further rights to recover the remaining sum will be extinguished (High Trees case) 13.   This is a case of pure economic loss.   The negligent driver does not owe a duty of care to the shop as there was no damage to the shop’s property (Spartan Steel v Martin).   Based on policy guidelines, the loss of profit to the shop is ‘non-recoverable’ to avoid the driver from a ‘crushing liability’. 14.   This is a negligent statement on the part of the accountants.   In Hedley Byrne v Heller, the House of Lords held that a ‘high degree of proximity or closeness of relationship is required, and for liability to arise, a special relationship has to be shown between the maker of the statement and the person who relied on it.’   XYZ should be able to sue the accountants. Bibliography Charman, M, (2002), Contract Law, 2nd edn, London, Willan Publishing Giliker, P and Beckwith, S., (2004) Tort, 2nd edn, London, Sweet and Maxwell Martin, J and Turner, C., (2001) Contract Law, London, Hodder Stoughton Martin, J and Turner, C., (2001) Tort Law, London, Hodder Stoughton Richards, P, (2002), Law of Contract, 5th edn, London, Longman Publishing

The Penguin (Sphenisciformes) :: essays papers

The Penguin (Sphenisciformes) The penguin (Sphenisciformes) has been a fascination to numerous people including scientists and researchers alike. They have distinctive characteristics and an interesting classification system. Their eating habits, unique way of breeding and predators are just a way of everyday life that fascinates scientists and researchers. The species status still remains in danger and can hopefully be helped. This unusual bird stands on short legs and walks with a clumsy waddle. These birds cannot fly which is how they got to be called Penguins, which means flightless. All species of penguins have short-bodies and necks. They also all have short thick feathers, which form a kind of waterproof coat. Most penguins’ feathers have feathers that are just white on the stomach and are black and blue on the back. Some have patches of brightly colored feathers on their necks. Theses birds keep warm from the harsh Antarctic conditions by thick layers of fat on their bodies. Their wings developed into flippers, which serve as paddles to help propel them in the water. They also have webbed feet which when combined with the flippers make them excellent swimmers and divers. The species are divided into four groups for easy identification. The groups are as follows, I. â€Å"Large, with orange or yellow patches on the sides of the upper neck (Species 1-2). II. Medium-sized, crested with orange or yellow lines on each side of the crown above the eyes (Species 3-8). III. Medium-sized, with no crest or yellow colour on the head, but usually with stripes of white or black on the head or breast (Species 9-14). IV. Small, with out crest or yellow colouring on heads (Species 15-17)† (Alexander 148). An example of each is as follows: Group I, the Emperor penguin. Group II, the Royal penguin. Group III, Adelie penguin and Group IV, the Whit-filppered penguin. The Emperor penguin is the largest penguin with the most southern range. The top of the head, chin, cheeks and throat are black, with a broad orange semicircle patch on each side of the upper neck. They have a long bill, which curves down, and a short tail composed of 20 feathers. The Royal penguin’s neck, chin, and throat are white. They have a broad orange band across the forehead and a short tail consisting of 14 feathers.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Essay -- Post-traumatic stress

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a relatively new diagnosis that was associated with survivors of war when it was first introduced. Its diagnosis was met largely with skepticism and dismissal by the public of the validity of the illness. PTSD was only widely accepted when it was included as a diagnosis in 1980 in the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) of the American Psychiatric Association. PTSD is a complex mental disorder that develops in response to exposure to a severe traumatic event that stems a cluster of symptoms. Being afflicted with the disorder is debilitating, disrupting an individual’s ability to function and perform the most basic tasks. Who gets PTSD? Post-traumatic stress disorder can develop at any age, from childhood years to adulthood with any cultural, social, and economic background. Any individual that goes through a particular traumatic event can experience great stress and anxiety that can then develop into a post-traumatic stress disorder. Protective service men and women, victims of rape, abuse, and torture, as well as victims of natural disasters, accidents are examples of a mass variety of individuals that are touched by the post-traumatic stress disorder. PTSD can be caused by witnessing or by being part of a traumatic event such as combat, torture, abuse, natural disaster, motor-vehicle accident and even a sudden loss of a loved one. Many factors play an important role to determining whether an individual is pre-disposed to PTSD. Risk factors are those that contribute to a person to have a higher prevalence of developing PTSD, while resilience factors help the individual to overcome trauma. Risk Factors Sin... ...of the individual to develop the disorder. Identification of individuals with PTSD is a complex decision to make, as there are many contributing factors for different people. However, treatments, prevention, and assessments of the disorder will be improved and enhanced in the near future. Works Cited Foa, E. B., Keane, T. M., Friedman, M. J., & Cohen, J. A. (2000). Effective treatments for PTSD: practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (Second Edition ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Reyes, G., Elhai, J. D., & Ford, J. D. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Psychological Trauma. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Violanti, J. M., & Paton, D. (2006). Who gets PTSD?. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas. Wilson, J. P., Friedman, M. J., & Lindy, J. D. (2001). Treating psychological trauma and PTSD. New York: Guilford Press.

CANDLE MAKING IP

Mr.. Meekly Sibyl for lending the book related on the study and for teaching us how to make our product. Mr.. And Mrs.. Romeo F. Aquinas and Mr.. And Mrs.. Ariel Peter M. Seeding for their support to the researchers not only financially but also morally. Their batches from Ill-Titanium. Especially, Sherry Barras, Anomie Lazars, and Jenny Pictorial. ABSTRACT A candle is a solid block of wax with an embedded wick which is ignited to provide light, and sometimes heat, and historically was used as a method of keeping time. A candle manufacturer is traditionally known as a chandler.Various devices have been invented to hold candles, from simple tabletop candle holders, to elaborate chandeliers. For a candle to burn, a heat source is used to light the candles wick, which melts and vaporizes a small amount of fuel, the wax. Once vaporized, the fuel combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to form a flame. This flame provides sufficient heat to keep the candle burning via a self-sustaining cha in of events: the heat of the flame melts the top of the mass of solid fuel; the liquefied fuel then moves upward through the wick via capillary action; the liquefied fuel finally vaporizes to urn within the candle's flame.Chapter I I. Introduction Candles were once used as a source of light and were simple and plain, without color or fragrance. They came in standard sizes and shapes. Now candle making is an art form and candles have become decorative works of art that come in an infinite variety of shapes, sizes, colors and fragrances. They are generally used to create a peaceful, romantic ambiance and are treasured for their relaxing effect. Candles have recently become a big part of home decor and this has encouraged the development of new techniques and materials.The materials you use will determine the quality of your candles but each candle will require a different combination of materials and techniques. Good note taking will allow you to determine what works and what doesn't and when you perfect your candle, you will be able to reproduce it. Whatever doesn't work, can be melted down again and re used. Candle scraps and pieces of shaved wax can all be kept and recycled so nothing goes to waste. Candles were meant to be burned so no matter how beautiful your candle comes out, remember it isn't done until it burns well so keep working t it until you get a good smokeless, even burning candle.Ill. Statement of the Problem This study aims to determine the compare commercial candles to a homemade candle. The objectives of this study are the following: ; To know how long is the duration of the candle ; To know if the candle is smokeless IV. Significance of the Study Candles represent a classic example of the process of combustion. When enough heat is applied, the wax of a candle starts to oxidize. The paraffin reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, and also heat and light. The flame is the visible part Of this exothermic reaction – wher e the reaction is energetic enough to produce visible light.Here are some more facts about candles. V. Scope and Limitation of the Study Our study is about candles using the materials we will use. To know how to make candles and the duration of the candles. To know more about candles and to enhance our knowledge about candles. VI. Definition of Terms Fragrance- a pleasant, sweet smell. Duration- time during which something continues. Exothermic reaction- chemical reaction accompanied by the evolution of heat. Oxidize- combine or become combined chemically with oxygen. Combustion- the process of burning something.Ambiance- atmosphere of a place. Http://www. Overexploitation. Com/library/complaining. Asp CHAPTER II Review Of Related Literature I. Local Literature In the Philippines candles have come a long way since their initial use. Although no longer man's major source of light, they continue to grow in popularity and use. Today, candles symbolize celebration, mark romance, soothe the senses, define ceremony, and accent home decors casting a warm and lovely glow for all to enjoy. II. Foreign Literature Candles were also commonplace throughout Europe.In England and France, Candle making had become a guild craft by the 1 13th century. These candle makers made candles from fats saved from the kitchen or sold their own candles from within their shops. During the middle Ages in Europe, The popularity of candles is shown by their use in Candles and in Saint Lucy festivities. Tallow, fat from cows or sheep, became the standard material used in candles in Europe. The Tallow Chandlers Company of London was formed in about 1300 in London, and in 1456 was granted a coat of arms. Dating from about 1330, the Wax Chandlers Company acquired its charter in 1484.By 141 5, Tallow candles Were used in Street lighting. The trade of the chandler is also recorded by the more picturesque name of â€Å"congresswomen†, since they oversaw the manufacture of sauces, vinegar, soa p and cheese. The unpleasant smell of tallow candles is due to the glycerin they contain. For churches and royal events, Candles from beeswax were used, as the smell was usually less unpleasant. The smell of the manufacturing process was so unpleasant that it was banned by ordinance in several cities. The first candle mould comes from 15th century Paris.The first American colonists discovered that bayberries could be used to make candles, but the yield was very poor. Fifteen pounds of boiled bayberries would provide only one pound of wax. Http://en. Wisped. Org/wick/History_of_candle_making http://www. Candles. Org/about_history. HTML CHAPTER Ill l. Methods and Procedures Materials Paraffin Wax Palette Knife Wick Scent Spoon Double Boiler Crayons Water Scissors Methods Twisted Candles 1. Roll out the upper part of the candle until it is about mm (1/4 in) thick. Leave the bottom 2. CM (in) unrolled so that it can fit into a candle holder.If the candle cracks whilst rolling, then it h as become too hard. Soften it by dipping it for three seconds at 71 co (1 60 OF) and then waiting for thirty seconds. 2. Hold the candle upside-down, with the unrolled base in one hand and the flattened part nearest the base between the thumb and forefinger of your other hand. 3. Pull the candle slowly upwards, sliding it between your thumb and forefinger and turning it steadily. 4. Repeat the process to give a more exaggerated twist. 5. Trim the base flat and allow the candle to cool for one hour. Floating Rose Candles 1.Melt the wax, heat it to 71 co (OFF), and prime the wicks. 2. Switch off the heat, and add twelve drops of perfume to the wax. 3. Carefully pour out the wax on to the paper so that it forms layers about mm (h in) thick, and allow it to cool until it is rubbery. 4. Cut petal shapes with the pastry cutter or palette knife. You will need petals of different sizes. Curve them with your fingers. 5. Squeeze two small petals around a wick and build up a rose flower. Wax t hat has cooled too much and become brittle can be softened with a hair dryer. 6.

Dot-com Bubble and Fastest-growing Camera Company

Ever since his days at the University of California at San Diego in the late 1990s, Nicholas Woodman wanted a way for him and his surfing buddies to capture their exploits without having to take turns sitting on shore with a camera and telephoto lens. â€Å"No surfer wants to be the photographer, especially when the waves are good,† he says. Woodman, 36, eventually decided to solve the problem and founded GoPro in 2002. GoPro makes a small, durable, lightweight (just 3. 3 ounces) camcorder and special mounts to attach the device to surfboards, helmets, ski poles, car hoods, or pretty much anything else.It’s become a phenomenon in the world of extreme sports, with back-country snowboarders, kayakers, scuba divers, and others using it to document their feats. Woodman’s company has sold hundreds of thousands of them through sports shops and is only now reaching beyond its X Game base with national TV ads and a distribution deal with Best Buy (BBY). â€Å"It’ s a very cool story,† says Christopher Chute, an analyst with IDC. â€Å"GoPro may well be the world’s fastest-growing camera company. †The stepson of Irwin Federman, a chip industry pioneer and successful venture capitalist, Woodman started an Internet marketing firm after college, but it didn’t survive the dot-com bust. He decompressed with a five-month surfing trip to Indonesia and Australia, where he began testing prototypes of a wrist-mounted camera. Once he got the design right, he borrowed and raised $30,000—in part by selling Indonesian bead-and-shell necklaces from the back of hisVolkswagen bus—and hired some buddies to cold-call surf shops and ask them to stock GoPro’s Hero line of cameras.Corporate giants such as Samsung have worked on wearable camcorders for years, but GoPro’s devices, which cost $180 to $300, stand out for image and sound quality, ease of use, and ruggedness. They’re waterproof to 180 feet an d drop-proof from 3,000 feet. (One was dropped from that height by a skydiver, who still uses it. ) A skier can attach one to his helmet to record what he sees and another to the tip of his ski to film himself. The cameras are also becoming a staple on TV, where they have been used to help film dozens of reality shows, including Deadliest Catch and Whale Wars.George Lucas is using them to shoot part of his next film, Red Tails. Woodman, who says GoPro is profitable enough to go public, wants to expand beyond hardware into media. One idea is for a cable show featuring extreme sports videos shot by GoPro users. The push into content is one reason Steamboat Ventures, the venture capital arm of Walt Disney (DIS), recently invested in GoPro. Says Beau Laskey, managing director of the fund: â€Å"There’s the potential for this to be much more than a camera company. †

Examine the portrayal of cultural poverty in “Saved” and “The Wasp Factory”

Cultural poverty can be defined as lacking society's principles in many ways. â€Å"The Wasp Factory† and â€Å"Saved† deal with dysfunctional families living in a community that is deprived of hope and aspiration. Their way of life is violent and gothic due to the deficiency of society's ethics and morals. This is reflected in the characters attitudes and minds which to them is all they have ever known. Their isolation from education and society's support structure limits their knowledge of how to live in a community. Lack of education is probably the most defining factor determining how a society advances and improves. Frank's world is completely his creation, with his own morals, principles and rules. He doesn't know how to socialise as he has never experienced life through the point of view of another human being. His total upbringing by his father was completely orchestrated mentally and physically. Frank epitomises the extremes of society's norms at the time that â€Å"The Wasp Factory† was written when Margaret Thatcher was in power. Thatcher's belief when she was in power was that it's â€Å"Every man for himself† which created social isolation between different families, as can be seen in the families of both â€Å"The Wasp Factory† and â€Å"Saved†. Frank's family sounds highly dysfunctional when we discover how he talks of how Eric's mother haemorrhaged and bled to death when Eric was born. His opinion of how Eric was the first murderer of the family is very sinister and thought provoking, â€Å"Old Eric beat me to it, killing his mum before he had even drawn breath†. Frank doesn't even exist in society which is one of the reasons why he has no education because he could never go to school. The same can be said of the characters in â€Å"Saved† who are illiterate and uneducated which can be shown through their vocabulary. No signs of education can be seen in any of the characters due to their personalities and lifestyles. Also the accent that comes through the vocabulary makes the characters seem different, as in our society we are not use to hearing their accents and generally their lifestyles seem isolated from society. We never hear of how they survive, where their income comes from nor even simple daily routines such as house hold duties. Even though the characters speech in â€Å"Saved† is altered, it brings the reader closer to the characters and they seem more human, which is why we understand the characters more personally and understand their different lifestyles. Social isolation is another aspect that affects the characters in â€Å"The Wasp Factory† and â€Å"Saved†. In â€Å"The Wasp Factory†, Frank understands how his island is just a miniscule part of the planet and knows that he limits his own knowledge of first hand experiences of other places, but the reason why his life is surrounded and clouded by the fact that he will never leave the island is deeper. He believes he has been treated cruelly by society and believes that it is influential and contaminating. This is largely due to the fact that when Eric left the island, he was exposed to the social pressures. He says, â€Å"Eric chose a path and followed it – that path led to the destruction of most of what he was†. Frank believes that Eric developing a mental illness as we learn in â€Å"What Happened to Eric† and his personality change is a result of his leaving the island and returning with a changed heart, indicating the world is a cruel and life-changing place. Frank sees his island as a haven, his protection from the cruelty and dangers of the outside world. He even says, â€Å"I don't bother people, and they best not bother me†, which shows he created isolation purposely, and that he isn't a shy or unsociable person. In â€Å"Saved† the setting reflects the characters isolation from society. â€Å"Saved† is set on a completely bare stage, which helps to create its detachment. At the time that â€Å"Saved† was written, the economy in Britain was in decline and unemployment rose, and this is reflected in the play. The society that the play is set was very capitalistic. Capitalism is a social system based on the principle of individual right, and is reflected in the play as the social class the characters are in is segregated. Bond is also trying to address a political issue with this play, Violence will only stop when we live in a just society in which all people are equal in all significant respects. Capitalism can't do this because its political ethos is competitiveness. The stoning of the baby is a consequence of this, but the eruption of violence has nothing to do with the preceding action or with the object of violence, the baby. It's just the result of the general situation (being bored, having no aims in life) and some of their cries while they murder the baby are ruling-class slogans. Aggression is not directed against the source of alienation, but against human nature, in this case the baby as the epitome of neediness and hope for the future. The young people express that they are not interested in children. Both books have similarities and differences in the way women are portrayed. The Wasp Factory†, Frank is brought up entirely by his father, and the effect this has on Franks view of women is very negative – he says, â€Å"My greatest enemies are women and the sea – women because they are weak and live in the shadow of men† (Pg 43). Frank also has a view that women like to see men helpless as he says â€Å"I expected she would just let me crack my skull on the pavement because women like to see men helpless† (Pg 79). Frank's mother also left the family when he was very young, which may be another reason why he resents the existence of women. In â€Å"Saved† the women are portrayed as weak and insecure. Pam is a very fragile character, and is easily hurt or made happy. Her emotions swing from one extreme to the other, in scene ten, she talks to Len about him seeing other women, â€Å"Yer ain' a bad sort†, and the next minute she is screaming at him, â€Å"Yer're a stubborn sod! † (Pg 95). Pam's relationship with Fred is definitely one way, at the beginning of scene 6 we see Pam practically begging Fred to come home that night, â€Å"I don't care if yer bin with yer girls, come ‘ome after† (Pg 59), and Fred basically doesn't really care and just says, â€Å"There's plenty a blokes knockin' about, why don't yer pick on someone else? (Pg 58). Even after the murder of her baby, Pam puts her relationship with Fred above the fact that he contributed towards the baby's murder, which is a reflection on how much she really cared for her child. Relationships are important in society as they help build foundations on how to communicate and acknowledge the fact that everyone is different. In â€Å"Saved† there is not one strong relationship based on trust. The only relationship which can be examined is between Harry and Mary, but even this has its flaws. Harry says that he only lives with Mary as she does the â€Å"washin' an cookin† (Pg 116), and he has no trust towards her as he thinks that if he left, Mary would easily find a replacement, â€Å"she would soon ‘ave someone in my bed† (Pg 119) One thing that is common in the main characters of both books is the lack of hope and aspiration. It is hard to visualise how the characters would develop as time goes by as they all seem to be in a daily routine which limits their awareness beyond their own surroundings and excludes them from their community. In â€Å"Saved† the only character who is idealistic and positive is Len. The author writes, â€Å"Len does not know what he will do next, but then he has never done†. Len's optimism is apparent because he has seen people at their very worst and most hopeless, yet he chooses to remain and not leave. We might believe that for Len to go further in life and to make something of himself he would have to break free of his current situation but he continues to believe that things will eventually work out for himself and for Pam. Bond says that the play is â€Å"irresponsibly optimistic†. This is true as the ending might be a new beginning for both Len and Pam (Possibly because Pam now has her Radio Times back). In â€Å"The Wasp Factory† Frank is optimistic about many things. Firstly he has a sense of optimism that has been enforced by his father. Frank understands that he was never going to be educated in public schools, but he believes that he is just as well educated as others, â€Å"I probably know more about the conventional school subjects than most people of my age†. Frank is also optimistic about Eric coming home as he has a very strong link with him, even though he is certified insane. The ending of the book is also positive; Frank says â€Å"I thought one door had shut behind me years ago, now the door closes, and my journey begins† (Pg 184). Even with the discovery of his new identity, Frank is confident that his â€Å"Journey† will still continue, and that although he realises he is a girl, he is still the same person, â€Å"But I am still me, I am the same person† (Pg 182). It could be said that human beings adapt to their surroundings, which is scientifically true in the case of animals such as rabbits where their fur turns white in winter. Humans are all born into society, and it is true that your surroundings can have an effect on a persons mind and personality. In â€Å"The Wasp Factory† and â€Å"Saved†, the characters are limited in their awareness and they have no perspective in life. They are living in their own isolated areas with no interaction with other people in their community and this limits their knowledge.

Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy (stopped flow method)Spectroscopy:It is the analysis of the electromagnetic radiation emitted, absorbed, or scattered by molecules. It is used to analyze materials and to monitor changes in concentration in chemical kinetics. Since photons act as messengers from atoms, the atomic spectra can be used to obtain detailed information about electronic structure and molecules. The energy of a molecule can change because of electronic transitions, and it can make transitions between its rotational and vibrational states. They are more complicated than atomic spectra and can give more information about electronic energy levels and about bonds length, strength, and angels (1).Stopped-flow technique:The solutions are mixed very rapidly and forced from syringes into a mixing chamber designed to ensure that the flow is turbulent and that complete mixing occurs very quickly. Behind the chamber, there is an observation cell fitted with a plunger that moves back as the liquids flood in and comes up against a stop after a certain volume. Filling the chamber corresponds to a sudden creation of an initial sample of the reaction mixture. The reaction then continues in the thoroughly mixed solution and is monitored spectrophotometrically. After a very short time of the flow, the flow is stopped suddenly when the observation cell is filled by an opposing piston which is linked to a sensing switch that triggers the measuring device (2). Small volumes of solutions are used, and the kineticequations for modeling the reactions are equivalent to those used inconventional methods in which concentration and time are measured.It is useful to study fast reactions that have half-lives as short as a few milliseconds. It is appropriate for studying biochemical reactions, such as studying enzymes. ? Formation of Peroxynitrite Peroxynitrite, an inorganic molecule of biological interest, is the product of the combination reaction between nitric oxide (?NO?^†¢) and superoxide (O_2^(†¢-))(4).?NO?^†¢+ O_2^(†¢-) ? ?ONOO?^-Increasing sensitivity can potentially allow the reaction to be measured, to be studied by slowing down the reaction rate through the use of lower concentration of reactants.the rate of the isomerization reaction depends little on the pressure ‘high pressure slows down the rate of reaction'(3). With the stopped-flow technique a value of 6.5 is found at millimolar phosphate concentrations, while at 0.5 M phosphate the value is 7.5The kinetics of decay do not follow first-order kinetics when the pH is larger than the pKa.The kinetics of the decay of hydrogen peroxynitrite are not very pressure-dependent: from stopped-flow experiments up to 152 MPa the rate of the isomerization reaction depends little on the pressure. Materials:Deionized water.Buffers, which are saturated with argon immediately before use, from salts and acids.Freshly prepared peroxynitrite.Prepration: Peroxynitrite was prepared by a modification of biomimetic synthesis of nitrogen monoxide with solid potassium superoxide. In Brief, 30% mol nitrogen monoxide was added to 100% mol solid potassium superoxide that was stirred with sand under argon in a 100-mL Erlenmeyer flask. Laser Flash Photolysis: the following reactions could take place:(i) Isomerization: cis and trans- peroxynitrite: (ii) Photodissociation: (iii) Photoionization: Reactions 3-6 can be neglected and for spectroscopic reasons reactions 8 and 9 must be abandoned.Under the assumption that we observed the reverseof reaction 7. The global analysis gives a rate constant of (1.5-2.0) Ãâ€" ?10?^10 M^(-1) S^(-1). Conventional second-order analysis at 25 different wavelengths and 4 different laser intensities resulted in a value of (1.6 ( 0.2) Ãâ€" 1010 M^(-1) S^(-1).The rate constant for reaction 7 of 1.6 Ãâ€" ?10?^10 M^(-1) S^(-1) is higher than those reported by other workers. These rate constants were measured under experimental designs that involve reaction cascades to arrive at the reactants. The rapid one-step production of superoxide and nitrogen monoxide reported herein has the advantage of allowing measurement of the recombination rate not complicated by other processes.The high rate constant has important consequences for the generation of peroxynitrite in vivo. Under normal in vivo conditions, the concentrations of nitrogen monoxide and superoxide dismutase are on the order of 1 Ãâ€" ?10?^(-8) and 5 Ãâ€" ?10?^(-6) M, respectively, whereby superoxide dismutase scavenges 98-99% of all superoxide, and consequently very little peroxynitrite is formed. Near an activated macrophage the nitrogen monoxide and superoxide concentrations may be 100 times higher, and the ratio of superoxide reacting with nitrogen monoxide to superoxide reacting with superoxide dismutase becomes 3:2. While considerations based on homogeneous solution kinetics do not necessarily apply to the inhomogeneous milieu inside or outside a cell, they do indicate that peroxyitrite formation is likely.According to the mechanism we can represent the rate law as:Rate = k [?NO?^†¢][O_2^(†¢-)]In addition to the determining step, a second-order curve was obtained which proves that the overall order of this reaction is 2.